1 The Characteristics of Life 1 Cell smallest

  • Slides: 151
Download presentation
1. The Characteristics of Life • 1. Cell - smallest unit capable of life

1. The Characteristics of Life • 1. Cell - smallest unit capable of life functions (basic unit of life) • 2. Metabolism - the sum of all chemical reactions, metabolism refers to a living organism's ability to consume and use energy (from food or from the sun) • 3. Reproduction - the process by which organisms make more of their own kind • 4. Homeostasis - maintaining stable internal conditions (biological balance) • 5. Heredity - the passing of traits from parents to offspring. The unit of heredity is the GENE - which codes for a trait. When a gene changes, it is called a MUTATION • 6. Responsiveness: reaction to select stimuli, physiologically and/or behaviorally • 7. Growth: conversion of materials from the environment into components of organism

# 2 : X E • Homeostasis means “same state” and it is the

# 2 : X E • Homeostasis means “same state” and it is the process of keeping the internal body environment in a normal state. Sweating allows the body to cool, maintaining normal body temperatures Insulin Injections allow diabetics to maintain normal glucose levels

#3 Scientific Method is presented 20 different ways in 20 different books. Don’t get

#3 Scientific Method is presented 20 different ways in 20 different books. Don’t get hung up on it! Remember that a Hypothesis is a Prediction!

#4 n A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which includes a prediction.

#4 n A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which includes a prediction.

n #6 Scholarly Journals: best choice Scholarly journals are often key resources for academic

n #6 Scholarly Journals: best choice Scholarly journals are often key resources for academic research. n Journal articles are "peerreviewed, " meaning their content is reviewed and approved by experts in the discipline. n Watch out, encyclopedias may have worked in middle school, but they no longer should be you best reference!

#7 Control Group o Control group n the group that is not changed; “normal

#7 Control Group o Control group n the group that is not changed; “normal conditions” n used for comparison

# 8 Experimental Variables n n Independent variable n experimenter changes (“I” change) Dependent

# 8 Experimental Variables n n Independent variable n experimenter changes (“I” change) Dependent Variable n is measured or observed n changes due to the independent variable The only way to eliminate experimenter bias

l #9. Mr. Brodowski wanted to test how effective note cards were on helping

l #9. Mr. Brodowski wanted to test how effective note cards were on helping students prepare for tests. He divided his class into two groups. He told Group A to make note cards each day for the next ten days, and Group B did not make note cards. He found that Group A scored 10 points higher on the test than Group B. Identify: l Independent Variable Dependent Variable l Control Group l Experimental Group l

#9 (cont. ) Bart thinks that mice exposed to microwaves will become stronger. He

#9 (cont. ) Bart thinks that mice exposed to microwaves will become stronger. He decided to do this as an experiment in his mother’s microwave. He placed 10 mice in the microwave for half a minute. He then compared the “waved” mice to a group of “non-waved” mice. To test his hypothesis, the mice would have to move a heavy block of wood that covered their food. Bart found that 8 “waved” mice and 8 “non-waved” mice could move the block of wood. • • Identify: – Control Group _______ – Independent Variable ______ – Dependent Variable _______

Proteins #12 1. Pigments – Provide skin color and protection 2. Structure – Cell

Proteins #12 1. Pigments – Provide skin color and protection 2. Structure – Cell structure 3. Keratin – Nail and Hair 4. Carriers – Hemoglobin 5. Enzymes Nucleic Acids DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acids - DNA is our genetic code - It contains the information for our cells RNA – Ribonucleic acids - RNA reads the DNA and provides instruction Lipids 1. Fats 2. Oils 3. Waxes 4. Cholesterals 5. Steroids Carbohydrates Polysaccharide: many sugar units 1. starch = plant storage (bread, potatoes) 2. glycogen = animal storage (beef muscle) 3. cellulose = Plant structure (lettuce, corn)

#13 • The monomer or building block of carbohydrates is monosaccharides • Protein’s building

#13 • The monomer or building block of carbohydrates is monosaccharides • Protein’s building blocks (monomers) of amino acids • The Building Blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids are nucleutides • Lipids: Triglycerides: composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

#14 • Protein/Amino acids are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON) •

#14 • Protein/Amino acids are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON) • Carbohydrates/monosaccharides Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen (CHO) 1: 2: 1 C 6 H 12 O 6 • Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA) are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphate (CHONP)

BTW • KNOW DIS PICTURE A lipid by any other name is a glycerol

BTW • KNOW DIS PICTURE A lipid by any other name is a glycerol connected to 3 fatty acids

# 15 Hydrolysis • Separates monomers by “adding water” • Used to separate macromolecules

# 15 Hydrolysis • Separates monomers by “adding water” • Used to separate macromolecules HO H H 2 O HO H

#16 Dehydration Synthesis • Also called “condensation reaction” • Forms polymers by combining monomers

#16 Dehydration Synthesis • Also called “condensation reaction” • Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”. • Used to form macromolecules. HO H H 2 O HO H

#17 • Ice is less dense as a solid, so ice floats • Cohesion:

#17 • Ice is less dense as a solid, so ice floats • Cohesion: attraction between particles of the same substance Ex. Surface Tension • Adhesion : attraction between two different substances. – Ex. Capillary action

#17 cont. • Polar water molecules act like magnets and attract each other •

#17 cont. • Polar water molecules act like magnets and attract each other • Water is often said to be the universal solvent, because it can dissolve many substances (think Kool-Aid) Salt in water will dissolve because it is polar, thus the universal solvent name

#18 How do enzymes Work? Enzymes work by weakening bonds which lowers activation energy

#18 How do enzymes Work? Enzymes work by weakening bonds which lowers activation energy

#19 Enzymes • Most enzymes are Proteins • Are Reusable • End in –ase

#19 Enzymes • Most enzymes are Proteins • Are Reusable • End in –ase -Sucrase -Lactase -Maltase

# 20 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (denature= Stopping its function) • Temperature • p.

# 20 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (denature= Stopping its function) • Temperature • p. H • Cofactors & Coenzymes • Inhibitors Denatured by p. H or temp change: substrate no longer fits

#21 Enzyme-Substrate Complex • Enzymes are substances present in the cell in small amounts

#21 Enzyme-Substrate Complex • Enzymes are substances present in the cell in small amounts which speed up or catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions because they lower the energy of activation, the energy that must be supplied in order for molecules to react with one another. Enzymes lower the energy of activation by forming an enzyme-substrate complex. BTW, Change the p. H or temperature and this enzyme might not work (denatured)

#21 Enzymes (another view in case the flash didn’t work for the last one)

#21 Enzymes (another view in case the flash didn’t work for the last one)

#22 CELL SHAPE • 1. Cells come in a variety of Shapes. • 2.

#22 CELL SHAPE • 1. Cells come in a variety of Shapes. • 2. Notice the neurons on the wall, the basic cell of our Nervous System. This diversity of form reflects a diversity of function. • 3. Most Cells have a Specific Shape. • 4. THE SHAPE OF A CELL DEPENDS ON IT'S FUNCTION. • 5. Cells of the Nervous System that carry information from your toes to your brain are long and threadlike. • 6. Blood Cells are shaped like round disk that can squeeze through tiny blood vessels.

#23 The Cell Theory consist of THREE Principles: A. All living things are composed

#23 The Cell Theory consist of THREE Principles: A. All living things are composed of one or more cells. B. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism. C. Cells come only from reproduction of existing cells. (remember the Redi experiment)

#24 • It is harder for a large cell to pass materials in and

#24 • It is harder for a large cell to pass materials in and out of the membrane, and to move materials through the cell • Bottom Line: You want a large surface area to volume ratio, which mean a small cell! Look how long it would take for stuff to get to the nucleus. NOT GOOD!! The Good The Bad The UGLY

#25 What are the Simplest Levels? • Atom • Molecule • Organelle • Cell

#25 What are the Simplest Levels? • Atom • Molecule • Organelle • Cell • Tissue • Organ • System

#26 Cell Membrane • The Cell Membrane Functions like a GATE, Controlling what ENTERS

#26 Cell Membrane • The Cell Membrane Functions like a GATE, Controlling what ENTERS and LEAVES the Cell • This "Selectively Permeable" Membrane regulates what passes into and out of the cell

#26 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL FLUID- because individual phospholipids and proteins can move around freely

#26 FLUID MOSAIC MODEL FLUID- because individual phospholipids and proteins can move around freely within the layer, like it’s a liquid. MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the membrane is viewed from above. Maybe TMI, but discuss.

#26 cont. • Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads of the phospholipid molecules lie on the

#26 cont. • Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads of the phospholipid molecules lie on the outward-facing surfaces of the plasma membrane. • Hydrophobic (waterfearing) nonpolar tails extend to the interior of the plasma membrane. Yea, I know it is a cheesy picture. It is not like I get these from Sports Illustrated!

#27 Organelles (yes, there are more to know) I know it is a little

#27 Organelles (yes, there are more to know) I know it is a little kiddy, but look at that man in the overalls, ain’t he the cutest thing you ever seen!

#28 Prokaryotes (Bacteria) • • Pro (before) Karyon (kernel) No nuclear membrane Lack membrane

#28 Prokaryotes (Bacteria) • • Pro (before) Karyon (kernel) No nuclear membrane Lack membrane bound organelles Simple and often small

#28 Eukaryotes (animal) • Eu (true) Karyon (kernel) • Membrane bound organelles • More

#28 Eukaryotes (animal) • Eu (true) Karyon (kernel) • Membrane bound organelles • More complex and often bigger • Membrane bound nucleus

#31 Plant Cell • Eukaryotes for they have membrane bound organelles and a true

#31 Plant Cell • Eukaryotes for they have membrane bound organelles and a true nucleus • Have cell wall, central vacuum and chloroplast • Lack flagella, cilia, lysosomes and centrioles

#30 • Glycoprotein acts as flags/ recognition sites for cells. Also called marker proteins.

#30 • Glycoprotein acts as flags/ recognition sites for cells. Also called marker proteins.

#32 Endosymbiosis • Process by which prokaryotes gave rise to the first eukaryotic cells

#32 Endosymbiosis • Process by which prokaryotes gave rise to the first eukaryotic cells • Cells are living together within cells • Mitochondria and Chloroplast • Lynn Margulis discovered

#33 Isotonic Solution NO NET MOVEMENT OF Both in and out equally Hypotonic Solution

#33 Isotonic Solution NO NET MOVEMENT OF Both in and out equally Hypotonic Solution IN Hypertonic Solution OUT

# 34 Solubility n Materials that are soluble in lipids can pass through the

# 34 Solubility n Materials that are soluble in lipids can pass through the cell membrane easily

# 35 Semipermeable Membrane Small molecules and larger hydrophobic molecules move through easily. e.

# 35 Semipermeable Membrane Small molecules and larger hydrophobic molecules move through easily. e. g. O 2, CO 2, H 2 O

#35 Semipermeable Membrane Ions, hydrophilic molecules larger than water, and large molecules such as

#35 Semipermeable Membrane Ions, hydrophilic molecules larger than water, and large molecules such as proteins do not move through the membrane on their own.

#36 Osmosis in Red Blood Cells Isotonic Same Hypotonic Hypertonic Shrinks

#36 Osmosis in Red Blood Cells Isotonic Same Hypotonic Hypertonic Shrinks

hypotonic hypertonic isotonic #36 cont isotonic hypotonic

hypotonic hypertonic isotonic #36 cont isotonic hypotonic

#37 Simple Diffusion n Requires NO energy n Molecules move from area of HIGH

#37 Simple Diffusion n Requires NO energy n Molecules move from area of HIGH to LOW concentration

#37 Osmosis – diffusion of water through a membrane

#37 Osmosis – diffusion of water through a membrane

Facilitated diffusion requires a carrier protein but uses NO ENERGY (With C. G. )

Facilitated diffusion requires a carrier protein but uses NO ENERGY (With C. G. ) #38

Active transport requires a carrier protein and ENERGY (Against C. G. ) ENERGY #38

Active transport requires a carrier protein and ENERGY (Against C. G. ) ENERGY #38 cont

BTW Endocytosis: large particle ENter the cell

BTW Endocytosis: large particle ENter the cell

More BTW Exocytosis large particles EXit the cell

More BTW Exocytosis large particles EXit the cell

#39 Overview of Cellular Respiration 1. Process that releases energy by breaking down food

#39 Overview of Cellular Respiration 1. Process that releases energy by breaking down food molecules in presence of oxygen Carried out by both plants and animals!

#39 cont. Photosynthesis v. The process of converting light energy to chemical energy and

#39 cont. Photosynthesis v. The process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it as glucose. v. This process occurs in plants and some algae. v. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the Chloroplast.

#40 Chloroplast • Chloroplast is an organelle found in plants. • Chloroplast is the

#40 Chloroplast • Chloroplast is an organelle found in plants. • Chloroplast is the organelle where photosynthesis takes place. • Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it as glucose • Chloroplast contains a pigment called chlorophyll. • Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in most plants. Yea, that pretty much sums up #40.

#41 Cellular Respiration 6 O 2 + C 6 H 12 O 6 6

#41 Cellular Respiration 6 O 2 + C 6 H 12 O 6 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + Energy Look familiar? What was the equation for photosynthesis? light 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 What do we make that plants need, and what do plants make that we need?

#40 cont. OUT IN

#40 cont. OUT IN

Interphase: G 1= carry out cell functions, live! S= replication of chromosomes G 2=

Interphase: G 1= carry out cell functions, live! S= replication of chromosomes G 2= checkpoints G 0: nondividing #43/46 cyt o telo kines pha is se anaphase se a h p a t e m se a h p o pr cell division Mitosis G 1: Growth S: Synthesis of DNA interphase G 2: Growth

#43 • Cytokinesis: entire cell divides in two • Process in which the cytoplasm

#43 • Cytokinesis: entire cell divides in two • Process in which the cytoplasm of a cell is divided after nuclear division (mitosis) is complete.

#44 • Cancer: unregulated mitosis (unresponsive to normal cues). • Cancer cells continue to

#44 • Cancer: unregulated mitosis (unresponsive to normal cues). • Cancer cells continue to divide

#47 Human Chromosomes during Mitosis

#47 Human Chromosomes during Mitosis

~ 47 to 52 Know this chart Mitosis Number of divisions Number of daughter

~ 47 to 52 Know this chart Mitosis Number of divisions Number of daughter cells Genetically identical? Chromosome # Somatic cells (body cells) 1 Meiosis Gamete (reproductive cells – Sperm/eggs) 2 2 4 Yes No Same as parent Half of parent Diploid Haploid Where Somatic cells Gamete cells When Throughout life At sexual maturity Role Growth and repair Sexual reproduction

#55 Mutations • • Mutation – any change in the DNA Gene mutation Chromosomal

#55 Mutations • • Mutation – any change in the DNA Gene mutation Chromosomal mutation Agents causing mutations – radiation, chemicals, excess heat • They eventually lead to evolution if the organism survives

#55 Recombination (crossing over) A B b Letters denote genes Case denotes alleles C

#55 Recombination (crossing over) A B b Letters denote genes Case denotes alleles C b B C • Generates diversity a a A • Occurs in prophase of meiosis I D D E F c c d E F e d e f • Creates chromosomes with new combinations of alleles for genes A to F. f

#56 Homologous Chromosomes Pair of chromosomes ( paternal) that are similar in chromosomes maternal

#56 Homologous Chromosomes Pair of chromosomes ( paternal) that are similar in chromosomes maternal and maternal paternal shape and size Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the same inherited traits Homologous chromosomes Sister chromatids Tetrad Sister chromatids

#57 Phases of Mitosis (PMAT) Interphase : The chromosomes (blue) are uncondensed. . Prophase:

#57 Phases of Mitosis (PMAT) Interphase : The chromosomes (blue) are uncondensed. . Prophase: Chromosomes condense and are visible for first time Think Pasta. Metaphase: The chromosomes move along the spindle microtubules to line up at the center of the cell. Think Middle.

#57 cont. Phases of Mitosis Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate, and each of two full

#57 cont. Phases of Mitosis Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate, and each of two full sets of chromosomes. Think Apart Telophase: The chromosomes gather into two clusters. Think Two. Next interphase: Chromosomes are decondensed. Spindle fibers are gone.

# 58 Pedigree Key: = Males = Females Shading = Recessive Trait (Attached Earlobes

# 58 Pedigree Key: = Males = Females Shading = Recessive Trait (Attached Earlobes = f ) No Shading = Dominant Trait (Free Earlobes = F) I 1 2 II 1 2 3

#58 cont. So you think your soo smart? What are the Genotypes of the

#58 cont. So you think your soo smart? What are the Genotypes of the people shown below? Ff Ff 1 Ff 2 3 F? 1 F? 2 F? ff 3 ff 1 Ff 4 ff 4 II 5 2 F f I 6 F f 3 Ff

BTW, Let’s get this out of the way before we start the heredity stuff

BTW, Let’s get this out of the way before we start the heredity stuff Genotype & Phenotype • Genotype : represents the exact genetic make-up. (What are the letters) Ex. Ss or SS • Phenotype: represents the actual physical properties, such as height, weight, hair color, and so on. (What is on the outside or expressed)

#59/64/65 Genotype & Phenotype Yes, I know it does not align with the review,

#59/64/65 Genotype & Phenotype Yes, I know it does not align with the review, but you know what I mean! Genotype Phenotype SS or Ss Round ss Wrinkled Genotype frequency 1: 2: 1 Phenotype frequency 3: 1

BTW Dihybrid Cross Dihybrid – 2 traits Gametes per parent = 4 Punnett Square

BTW Dihybrid Cross Dihybrid – 2 traits Gametes per parent = 4 Punnett Square – 16 boxes Genotype ratio 1: 2: 4: 2: 1 Phenotype ratio 9: 3: 3: 1

#60 Dominant vs. Recessive • Dominant – always expressed v Capital letters – N

#60 Dominant vs. Recessive • Dominant – always expressed v Capital letters – N v Homozygous - NN v Heterozygous - Nn • Recessive – prevented by dominant v Lower case letters – n v Homozygous - nn

#61 Linkage – Sex Linkage • Linkage – genes on the same chromosome inherited

#61 Linkage – Sex Linkage • Linkage – genes on the same chromosome inherited as a group • Sex-linkage – genes on sex chromosomes (esp. X) • Y-chromosome shorter – some genes from X missing • X-linked traits more common in men • Men get X-chromosome from mom • Red-green colorblindness, hemophilia

#62 Hemophilia • Hemophilia (heem-a-FILL-eeah) is a rare inherited bleeding disorder in which the

#62 Hemophilia • Hemophilia (heem-a-FILL-eeah) is a rare inherited bleeding disorder in which the blood does not clot normally. • Hemophilia is a sex-linked trait in humans • Women are most often “carriers”, not having the symptoms but carrying the trait on their genes.

#63 Test-Cross KNOWN UNKNOWN • The crossing of an organism, with an unknown genotype,

#63 Test-Cross KNOWN UNKNOWN • The crossing of an organism, with an unknown genotype, to a homozygous recessive organism (tester). Homozygous Recessive So, What is the unknown genotype?

#66 Incomplete Dominance • Hybrid is a blend of two traits • Genotype frequency

#66 Incomplete Dominance • Hybrid is a blend of two traits • Genotype frequency 1: 2: 1 • Phenotype frequency 1: 2: 1 • Examples: Flowers, Animal fur

#66 cont. Co-dominance • More than one dominant allele • Blood types – A,

#66 cont. Co-dominance • More than one dominant allele • Blood types – A, B, O alleles • Phenotypes Genotypes A I AI A or I Ai (AA or (AO) B IBIB or IBi (BB or BO) AB I AIB (AB) O ii (oo)

#66 cont. Polygenetic Traits Notice the multiple alleles • More than one gene determines

#66 cont. Polygenetic Traits Notice the multiple alleles • More than one gene determines the phenotype. • 2 or more genes affect 1 phenotype usually with quantitative characters, with a continuous scale of measurement. . . - height, weight, skin color* (and a polygenic*model), etc. . .

#67 Karyotype • What species? How do you know? • Boy or girl? How

#67 Karyotype • What species? How do you know? • Boy or girl? How do you know? • What are the first 22 chromosomes called? • Anything else going on with this karyotype?

#68 Human Genome Project • Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was

#68 Human Genome Project • Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a 13 -year project coordinated by the U. S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health. • Goal – identified all the approximately 25, 000 -30, 000 genes in human DNA – Basically they mapped the human genome (all of our genes

#69 M/F Karyotype

#69 M/F Karyotype

#70 Find the Gene for Whirling Disorder! • When individuals afflicted with Whirling Disorder

#70 Find the Gene for Whirling Disorder! • When individuals afflicted with Whirling Disorder hear old Rolling Stones tunes, they let loose and dance uncontrollably.

#71 Environmental influence on genes expression • Gene function is influenced by environment as

#71 Environmental influence on genes expression • Gene function is influenced by environment as with identical twins • Genes have blueprint for proteins or parts of proteins • Proteins can be structural proteins (parts of body) or functional proteins (hormones/enzymes)

#72 Evidence for DNA Griffith studied Streptococcus pneumonia, a nasty bacteria to create a

#72 Evidence for DNA Griffith studied Streptococcus pneumonia, a nasty bacteria to create a vaccine. A vaccine is a substance made from dead or weakened bacteria. You body is given the vaccine and is ready for a live version when it comes. GRIFFITH Virulent: A substance that causes disease or death X X Heat Treated Dead Virulent Harmless non-virulent Griffith’s Conclusion: Transformation: Bacteria have the ability to transfer genetic information from one bacteria to another.

#72 cont More Evidence for DNA Bacteriophage Hershey and Chase studied a bacteriophage. A

#72 cont More Evidence for DNA Bacteriophage Hershey and Chase studied a bacteriophage. A Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria and causes them to burst. Hershey Chase Bacteria Bacteriophage w/ Blinking DNA Bacteria Hershey & Chase Experiment Frozen Daiquiri Baby Viruses w/ Blinking DNA Conclusion: DNA is the unit of genetics, because the babies blink!!!

#73 Chagraff’s Puzzle Pieces C C A A Simply put: G - Where you

#73 Chagraff’s Puzzle Pieces C C A A Simply put: G - Where you find an adenine (A) there will be a thymine (T) -Where you find a guanine (G) there will be a cytosine (C). **** A + T spells AT ****** Chagraff Notice Purines Are large. The base pairs are complimentary for A=T G=C

A picture is worth a thousand nucleotides Rosiland Franklin took the first ‘picture’ of

A picture is worth a thousand nucleotides Rosiland Franklin took the first ‘picture’ of DNA using complex X-Ray Crystallography Her X-ray was instrumental to figuring out the structure of DNA Rosalind Franklin #73 She did not receive the Nobel Prize because she died before the award was given.

Watson & Crick #73 Watson and Crick made the first model of the DNA

Watson & Crick #73 Watson and Crick made the first model of the DNA molecule that showed the double helix structure. Watson, Crick and Wilkins won the Nobel prize in 1962

DNA Replication (Review) We go from dis to dat DNA Replication 1. The DNA

DNA Replication (Review) We go from dis to dat DNA Replication 1. The DNA material is doubled 2. Occurs in the Nucleus 3. Helicase is the untwister and unzipper See Chromosomes, Genes and DNA 4. Happens prior to mitosis/meiosis during interphase (S) See Cell reproduction #74

 BASE-PAIRINGS #75 Hydrogen Bond Holds the base G C T A

BASE-PAIRINGS #75 Hydrogen Bond Holds the base G C T A

#76 • Adenine must pair with Thymine • Guanine must pair with Cytosine •

#76 • Adenine must pair with Thymine • Guanine must pair with Cytosine • Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will be about the same. T A G C

#77 1. 2. 3. 4. Transcription DNA m. RNA DNA is copied to m.

#77 1. 2. 3. 4. Transcription DNA m. RNA DNA is copied to m. RNA (messenger. RNA) Occurs in the Nucleus m. RNA carries genetic message out a nuclear pore Polymerase enzyme connects the new m. RNA nucleotides

BTW, Translation m. RNA Protein RIBOSOME 1. m. RNA is used to make proteins

BTW, Translation m. RNA Protein RIBOSOME 1. m. RNA is used to make proteins (polypeptides) 2. Occurs in the cytoplasm 3. A ribosome is used as the binding site for the protein synthesis See Bio. Coach m. RNA

#79 Codon / Anti Codon CODON Anti codon See Bio. Coach

#79 Codon / Anti Codon CODON Anti codon See Bio. Coach

#80 Peptide Bond • Used to hold the amino acids together to form a

#80 Peptide Bond • Used to hold the amino acids together to form a protein Peptide bond See Bio. Coach

Two Types of Nucleic Acids (in case you forgot) DNA RNA Double stranded Single

Two Types of Nucleic Acids (in case you forgot) DNA RNA Double stranded Single stranded Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar Thymine Uracil

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) • Made up of nucleotides (DNA molecule) in a DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) • Made up of nucleotides (DNA molecule) in a DNA double helix. • Nucleotide is made up of : 1. Phosphate group 2. 5 -carbon sugar = deoxyribose 3. Nitrogenous base #83

#83 cont. DNA Nucleotide Phosphate Group O O=P-O O CH 2 O N C

#83 cont. DNA Nucleotide Phosphate Group O O=P-O O CH 2 O N C C Sugar (deoxyribose) C C Nitrogenous base (A, G, C, or T)

 • #84 Recombinant DNA: DNA that has genes from two different organisms

• #84 Recombinant DNA: DNA that has genes from two different organisms

#84 cont Recombinant DNA Process • Isolate Plasmid and Human DNA • Apply RE

#84 cont Recombinant DNA Process • Isolate Plasmid and Human DNA • Apply RE to both human and Bacteria Plasmid • Insert Human spliced DNA into spliced Plasmid • Add ligase enzyme to bond covalently • Put plasmid into bacteria • Clone human DNA fragment through normal bacteria replication w/ nutrient medium.

BTW Sticky Ends

BTW Sticky Ends

#85 Transgenic Organism • Plant, animal, bacterium, or other living organism that has had

#85 Transgenic Organism • Plant, animal, bacterium, or other living organism that has had a foreign gene added to it by means of genetic engineering. . X E Tobacky plant spliced with bioluminescence gene which causes it to glow

#86 Cloning • Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of something

#86 Cloning • Cloning is the process of creating an identical copy of something • The terms "recombinant DNA technology, " "DNA cloning, " "molecular cloning, "or "gene cloning" all refer to the same process.

#87 Bacteria DNA Bacteria Cell • Plasmid: small circular DNA molecule that replicates within

#87 Bacteria DNA Bacteria Cell • Plasmid: small circular DNA molecule that replicates within bacteria cell, separate from the bacteria chromosome. • Often used for genetic technology Plasmid Chromosome

#88 • Restrictive Enzymes: (1960’s) Bacteria enzymes that work by cutting up foreign DNA,

#88 • Restrictive Enzymes: (1960’s) Bacteria enzymes that work by cutting up foreign DNA, like a phage • Each R. E. cuts at a specific sequence. There are hundreds of different RE, each with its own cutting sequence Restrictive Enzyme DNA

#89 DNA Fingerprinting • Like the fingerprints that came into use by the police,

#89 DNA Fingerprinting • Like the fingerprints that came into use by the police, each person has a unique DNA fingerprint. • The fingerprints are made from the base pairs (A-T, G-C).

#90 Evolution • Evolution is the slow , gradual change in a population of

#90 Evolution • Evolution is the slow , gradual change in a population of organisms over time • Through Mutations and survival of the fittest, evolution occurs

BTW, Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution • Use & Disuse - Organisms Could Change The

BTW, Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution • Use & Disuse - Organisms Could Change The Size Or Shape Of Organs By Using Them Or Not Using Them • Blacksmiths & Their Sons (muscular arms) • Giraffe’s Necks Longer from stretching) • Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

#91 Survival of the Fittest Darwin, Darwin • Fitness – Ability of an Individual

#91 Survival of the Fittest Darwin, Darwin • Fitness – Ability of an Individual To Survive & Reproduce • Adaptation – Inherited Characteristic That Increases an Organisms Chance for Survival

#93 Homologous Body Structures • Similar Bone Structure but different function • Implies a

#93 Homologous Body Structures • Similar Bone Structure but different function • Implies a common ancestor • Limb Bones Develop In Similar Patterns • Arms, Wings, Legs, Flippers

BTW, Vestigial Organs • Not All Serve Important Functions • Appendix • Pinky Toe

BTW, Vestigial Organs • Not All Serve Important Functions • Appendix • Pinky Toe • Third eye lid

#94 Relative Dating • Fossil record provides relative dating of rock layers; top layers

#94 Relative Dating • Fossil record provides relative dating of rock layers; top layers of rock are younger than lower layers.

#94 cont. Absolute Dating – Absolute dating method uses radioactive isotopes. – Isotopes each

#94 cont. Absolute Dating – Absolute dating method uses radioactive isotopes. – Isotopes each have particular half-life or time it takes for half of isotope to decay and become nonradioactive. – Carbon-14 (14 C) used to date organic matter; half decays to 14 N each 5, 730 years; limited to about last 50, 000 years. – Half of potassium-40 (40 K) decays to argon-40 (40 Ar) each 1. 3 million years; estimates age of younger rocks. – Uranium-238 decays to lead-207; estimates age of older rocks.

#95 Orange to Red takes forever a) Punctuated equilibrium Change occurs in bursts, separated

#95 Orange to Red takes forever a) Punctuated equilibrium Change occurs in bursts, separated by long time periods of no change BAM b) Gradualism small changes over long time periods

Four Things You Must Know About Darwin • Wrote the “Origin of Species” •

Four Things You Must Know About Darwin • Wrote the “Origin of Species” • The “Survival of the Fittest” Guy • The “Natural Selection” Guy • He Loved Bumper Cars #96

Domains #97 -98 • Three domains • Archaea and Eubacteria are unicellular prokaryotes (no

Domains #97 -98 • Three domains • Archaea and Eubacteria are unicellular prokaryotes (no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles) • Eukarya are more complex and have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles • Broadest, most inclusive taxon

98 -99

98 -99

#100 Autotrophs • Autotrophs are also called Producers because they produce all of the

#100 Autotrophs • Autotrophs are also called Producers because they produce all of the food that heterotrophs use • Ex. Plants and Algae

#101 Heterotrophs • Organisms that do not make their own food • Another term

#101 Heterotrophs • Organisms that do not make their own food • Another term for Heterotroph is consumer because they consume other organisms in order to live • Ex. Rabbits, Deer, Mushrooms

 • King • Phillip • Came • Over • For #104 • Good

• King • Phillip • Came • Over • For #104 • Good • Spaghetti!

Other factors that affect population growth • Carrying Capacity- the maximum population size that

Other factors that affect population growth • Carrying Capacity- the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources • There can only be as many organisms as the environmental resources can support (limiting resources) # 105

Carrying Capacity Nu m #105 cont. J-shaped curve (exponential growth) Carrying Capacity (k) b

Carrying Capacity Nu m #105 cont. J-shaped curve (exponential growth) Carrying Capacity (k) b S-shaped curve (logistic growth) e r Time

#106 • Ecosystem: Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in

#106 • Ecosystem: Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in a given area with the abiotic components of that area. (terrestrial or aquatic)

BTW, • Population: A group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed

BTW, • Population: A group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same place at the same time. REMEMBER: To be a species, you must be able to breed and have young that can breed (viable) Don’t over think this with Mules and Ligers!!!!

BTW, • Community: All the populations of different species that live in the same

BTW, • Community: All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time.

#108 Food Web • Notice that the direction the arrow points in the direction

#108 Food Web • Notice that the direction the arrow points in the direction of the energy transfer, NOT “what ate what”

#110 Ecological Succession • A change in the community in which new populations of

#110 Ecological Succession • A change in the community in which new populations of organisms gradually replace existing ones – 1. Primary Succession – occurs in an area where there is no existing communities and for some reason (s) a new community of organisms move into the area • Think Glaciers and Lava Flows – 2. Secondary Succession – occurs in an area where an existing community is partially damaged • Think Forest Fires – 3. Climax Community – a community that is stable and has a great diversity of organisms

#111 Water Cycle: Transpiration and evaporation causes water to go up Precipitation causes water

#111 Water Cycle: Transpiration and evaporation causes water to go up Precipitation causes water to go down Nitrogen Fixation: Bacteria can absorb nitrogen directly and convert to a form plants can use Release Carbon: Burning Fossil Fuels, Volcanoes, and animal Respiration Absorb Carbon: Photosynthetic Plants and algae, and dissolved

#112 Heterotrophs • Consumers – 1. Scavengers/Detritivores – feed on the tissue of dead

#112 Heterotrophs • Consumers – 1. Scavengers/Detritivores – feed on the tissue of dead organisms (both plans and animals) • Ex. – Vultures, Crows, and Shrimp – 2. Herbivores – eat ONLY plants • Ex. – Cows, Elephants, Giraffes – 3. Carnivores – eat ONLY meat • Ex. – Lions, Tigers, Sharks – 4. Omnivores – eat BOTH plants and animals • Ex. – Bears and Humans – 5. Decomposers – absorb any dead material and break it down into simple nutrients or fertilizers • Ex. – Bacteria and Mushrooms

#112 cont. – Primary Consumers – eat autotrophs (producers) – Secondary Consumers – eat

#112 cont. – Primary Consumers – eat autotrophs (producers) – Secondary Consumers – eat the primary consumers – Tertiary Consumers – eat the secondary consumers – Decomposers – bacteria and fungi that break down dead organisms and recycle the material back into the environment

#113 Ecological Pyramid

#113 Ecological Pyramid

#113 cont. Ecological Pyramid

#113 cont. Ecological Pyramid

#113 Ecological Pyramid • • Which level has the most energy? Which level has

#113 Ecological Pyramid • • Which level has the most energy? Which level has the most organisms? Which level has the least energy?

#114 • Begins with the SUN • Photosynthesis 6 CO 2 + 6 H

#114 • Begins with the SUN • Photosynthesis 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + sunlight & chlorophyll C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2

BTW, Symbiosis • A close and permanent association between organisms of different species –

BTW, Symbiosis • A close and permanent association between organisms of different species – Commensalism – a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is not affected • Example: Barnacles on a whale – Mutualism – a relationship in which both organisms benefit from each other • Example: Birds eating pest off a rhino’s back – Parasitism – A relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed • Example: Ticks on a dog

#115 Habitat & Niche • Habitat is the place a plant or animal lives

#115 Habitat & Niche • Habitat is the place a plant or animal lives • Niche is an organism’s total way of life

#116 The Nonliving Environment • Abiotic factors- the nonliving parts of an organism’s environment.

#116 The Nonliving Environment • Abiotic factors- the nonliving parts of an organism’s environment. • Examples include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil.

#117 The Living Environment • Biotic factors- all the living organisms that inhabit an

#117 The Living Environment • Biotic factors- all the living organisms that inhabit an environment.

#117 (this is a basic, incomplete answer to this question, but it points you

#117 (this is a basic, incomplete answer to this question, but it points you in the right direction) • Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up. • The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are likely to be the main source of ozone depletion.

#118 • Biodiversity is the variety of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome

#118 • Biodiversity is the variety of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. • The greater the Biodiversity, the healthier the environment.

#120

#120

#122 -123

#122 -123

#124 Cuticle • The outer surface of the leaf has a thin waxy covering

#124 Cuticle • The outer surface of the leaf has a thin waxy covering called the cuticle. • This layer's primary function is to prevent water loss within the leaf.

#124 cont. Stoma • The stoma is responsible for the interchange of gases for

#124 cont. Stoma • The stoma is responsible for the interchange of gases for respiration and photosynthesis. • The stomata allow for the loss of excess water in the form of water vapour, which also allows for cooling.

#125 Roots Hairs • Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of roots •

#125 Roots Hairs • Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of roots • Root hairs absorb nutrients and water.

#126 Know your male/female parts of the plant

#126 Know your male/female parts of the plant

#127

#127

 #128 Xylem • Conducts water and dissolved minerals • Conducting cells are dead

#128 Xylem • Conducts water and dissolved minerals • Conducting cells are dead and hollow at maturity tracheids vessel member

#128 cont. Phloem: sieve plate • Transports sugars • Main conducting cells are sievetube

#128 cont. Phloem: sieve plate • Transports sugars • Main conducting cells are sievetube members • Companion cells assist in the loading of sugars sieve-tube member companion cell

Things to know • Angiosperm – Have flowers – Have fruits with seeds –

Things to know • Angiosperm – Have flowers – Have fruits with seeds – oak, maple, elm, apple • Gymnosperm – Lack flowers and fruit – Often cone trees – Conifers (pine trees), Ginkos

The SOL loves these two terms, so know them!!!! • Coniferous trees keep their

The SOL loves these two terms, so know them!!!! • Coniferous trees keep their leaves throughout the year – conifer family are pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks. • Deciduous trees are also known as broadleaf trees – They often lose their leaves in fall – Apple, elm, oaks, maples

 • Marsupials: female marsupials have pouches for young. Some marsupials include the koala,

• Marsupials: female marsupials have pouches for young. Some marsupials include the koala, kangaroo, and the numbat. • Monotremes: egg-laying mammals. Modern-day monotremes include the echidnas (spiny ant-eaters) and the duck-billed platypus. • • Placental mammals: Live Birth. Pretty much most mammals you know #130

Characteristics of Mammals • Hair • Sweat Glands • Mammary Glands – For milk

Characteristics of Mammals • Hair • Sweat Glands • Mammary Glands – For milk production • Vertebrates • Endothermic (inside heat) #129

BTW Characteristics of All Reptiles 1. They are ectothermic vertebrates. (outside heat) 2. Their

BTW Characteristics of All Reptiles 1. They are ectothermic vertebrates. (outside heat) 2. Their skin has scales. 3. They have three-chambered hearts 4. They have claws on their toes • 5. They are the first animals, in evolution, to develop the amniotic egg. This allows reptiles to lay eggs on land.

BTW Insects Characteristics • Three-segmented body: head, abdomen, and thorax. • Exoskeleton. (outside skeleton)

BTW Insects Characteristics • Three-segmented body: head, abdomen, and thorax. • Exoskeleton. (outside skeleton) • Six legs, jointed appendages. • Compound eyes. • Usually two pair of wings.