S Z U Linguistics The word Linguistics has

S Z U Linguistics • The word ‘Linguistics, has been derived from Latin lingua (tongue) and istics (knowledge or science). Therefore, linguistics is the scientific study of language. • Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, from the sounds and gestures of speech up to organization of words, sentences, and meaning. Linguistics is also concerned with the relationship between language and cognition, society, and history. But it is the study not of one particular language but of human language in general 1

S Z U Linguistics • Linguistics: is that science which studies the origin, organization, nature, and development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively, and explicitly, and formulates the general rules related to language. Each human language is a complex of knowledge and abilities speakers of the language to communicate with each other, to express ideas, hypotheses, emotions, desires, and all other things that need expressing. Linguistics is the study of these knowledge systems in all their aspects: how is such a knowledge system structured, how is it acquired, how is it used in the production and comprehension of messages, how does it change over time? 2

S Z U Key Concepts of Linguistics • Synchrony and Diachronic: They refer to the difference in treating language from different points of view. When we take a synchronic point of view, we are looking at a language as we find it at a given period of time. The diachronic point of view, on the other hand, gives us the historical angle, we look at a language over period of time along with changes that occurred in it. • Competence vs Performance: Noam Chomsky first used these terms to specifically refer to a person’s intuitive knowledge of the rules, structure, and meanings of his language as a native speaker (he called it competence), and his actual use of these (which he termed performance) 3

S Z U • Form, Substance and Context: The distinction refers to the system. Sounds produced by the human speech organs can be said to comprise the substance (phonic substance), visual (Graphic substance) or content. Its shaping into different functional configurations can be called forms or expressions. The word Drink (content) is used as both noun and verb. Form can be analyzed without taking into account the meaning. Form can be studied from different angles: phonological, morphological, grammatical, syntactical, etc. Context is the relationship between form and situation. 4

S Z U • Parole: (The act of speaking) the actual linguistic behavior or performance of individuals, in contrast to the linguistics system of a community. • langue: ( a language system) a language viewed as an abstract system used by a speech community, in contrast to the actual linguistic behavior of individuals. 5

S Z U Linguistics levels • The Grammatical system: It is stock of morphemes, and the arrangements in which they occur; 1. Morphology 2. Syntax • The phonological system: It is a stock of phonemes, and the assignments in which they occur. • The morphophonemic system: It is the code which ties together the grammatical and the phonological system. • The semantic system: It associates various morphemes, and arrangements in which morphemes can be put, with things and situations, or kinds of things and situations • The phonemic system: it denotes the ways in which sequence of phonemes are converted into sound waves. 6

S Z U Branches • Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of speech processes. • Grammatical levels: a. syntax: concerned with the study of the arrangement of words in sentences b. Morphology: Concerned with the study and analysis of the structure, form and classes of words. • Semantics: Concerned with the meaning and its manifestation in language. 7

S Z U What is Morphology? • Morphology: The term morphology is Greek and is a makeup of morph- meaning 'shape, form', and -ology which means 'the study of something'. is the study of the patterns of word-forms. It studies how the words are formed, where they originate from, what their grammatical forms are, what the functions of prefixes and suffixes in the formation of words are, on what basis the parts of speech of a particular language are formed, how the system of gender, number, plural, etc function, how and why the word-forms change. 8

S Z U purposes • The internal structure of words and the segmentation into different kinds of morphemes is essential to the two basic purposes or morphology: 1. the creation of new words and 2. the modification of existing words. 9

S Z U Words • Words are two types: Content words and function words • Lexical words: these are the words which have meaning that can be understood fully in and of itself. Noun, verb, adjective and adverb are called lexical words. • Function words: are the words, on the other hand can be understood completely only when they occur with other words. These include pronoun, conjunction, articles, and preposition. Thomas E. Murray, The Structure of English, Allyn and Bacon, 1995) 10

S Z U Haspelmath and Sims • Two different kinds of words as defined by Haspelmath and Sims • Dictionary word (lexeme) • Text word (word form) 11

S Z U Morpheme • First, some preliminaries. All languages have words and morphemes. Words can be freely moved around in a sentence. For example, cats is a word: • Cats is a complex word, made up two morphemes; a morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning or function within a language. The two morphemes are the root cat and –s, which means ‘plural’. • Minimal (of a pair of forms distinguish by only one feature, p, b are a minimal pair, distinguished by the feature of voicing) units of grammatical structure, such as the four components of un faith fullness are called morphemes. • Morphemes are those distinct, minimal syntactical unit which form words. 12

S Z U morpheme • • • Is a minimal grammatical unit of a language Are syntactical units which form words They form compose words in various ways It is not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms They may or may not have meaning, or may not have a phonological representation. E. g. {un-} has a negative meaning in unfriendly, but it is meaningless in under. The word sheep has two morphemes, but no phonological representation and is called zero morpheme. 13

S Z U Morpho(pho)nology: Morphs, Morphemes and Allomorphs • Morphonology is concerned with the interface between morphology and phonology, and more specifically with the question how morphemes are realized in different phonological contexts. • Morphemes often occur in different variants: in this case we speak of different allomorphs realizing a single morpheme. Allomorphs are really morphs, but in order to stress that a group of morphs belong to one morpheme the term ‘allomorph’ is used. • Morph: a morph is the phonetic realization of a morpheme • Allomorph: When a morpheme is realized by more than one sound pattern, we call the variations allomorphs. • • Allomorphs are phonologically, lexically or grammatically conditioned. 14

Phonological conditioning: S Z U • the English plural morpheme (1) verbs, bets, kisses allomorphs of the Engl. plural morpheme 15

S Z U • the phonological form of the stem determines the form of the suffix: • /-z/ after vowels and voiced consonants which are not sibilants [b, d, g, v, m, n, ᵑ, l, r, y, w] • /-s/ after voiceless consonants which are not sibilants[(p, t, k, f, Ө] 16

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S Z U The Past Tense /d/ • /id/ occurs after morphs ending in alveolar stops /t/ and /d/ as in wanted and wedded • /d/ occurs after voiced phonemes except /t/ and /d/ as in loved and walked • /t/ occurs after voiceless phonemes except /t/ as in helped. 18

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S Z U Morphological Conditioning • Zero suffixes: certain words in English do not change their forms. For example, sheep, deer, fish, etc. this is called zero suffix • Vowel Mutation: in changing some singular nouns into plural, we change vowels. For example, find---found, sing---sung, etc. This process is called vowel mutation 20

S Z U • Consonant changes: some pluralizing is affected by consonant changes. For example, knife—knives, wife—wives. This process is called consonant changes • Suppletion: Some times we change the whole form of words. For example, go—went, bad--worse, good—better. This is called suppletion. 21

S Z U • Replacive: There is no obvious way to analyze forms like geese, lice etc. some linguistics suggest that the plural vowel /i: / in geese, /gi: s/ which replaces the /u: / in goose /gu : s/ should be regarded as a special type of morphemic element called a replacive. 22

Kinds of Morpheme Two types of morpheme have been identified on the basis of their occurrence in larger constructions • Free • Bound (Affixes: Prefixes, and Suffixes) a. Affixes: Derivational, Inflectional and Bound Base • Derivational: Class Maintaining and Class Changing S Z U

S Z U • Free Morpheme: a morpheme that occurs alone, or can stand alone. All content words are free morpheme. • Bound Morpheme: cannot occur or stand alone. 24

S Z U Affixes • affix : = a morpheme that attaches to others (i. e. , to bases). Types of affixes: location (a) prefix: An affix that goes on the front. (b) suffix: An affix that goes on the end. 25

S Z U • According to the function derivational affix : an affix that produces a meaning change when added to a base. Examples • -er (own-er), -ful (beauti-ful), un- (un-do), etc. 26

S Z U • • Is not part of an obligatory set of affixes Generally occurs closer to the root Generally is more meaningful, and Is more likely to result in a form that has a somewhat idiosyncratic meaning? 27

S Z U What is inflection? • Definition Inflection is variation in the form of a word, typically by means of an affix that expresses a grammatical contrast, which is obligatory for the stem’s word class in some given grammatical context 28

S Z U inflectional affix : a purely grammatical affix, which bears little meaning. • Inflectional affixes cannot result in a category change. Examples • -s (tree-s), -est (small-est), etc. 29

S Z U • Expresses a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem’s word class in some given grammatical context. • Does not change the word class of its stem. • Is typically located farther from its root than a derivational affix, and • Produce a predictable, nonidosyncratic change of meaning 30

S Z U English inflectional affixes English has only 8 inflectional affixes. Below is the list of them. • Affix Example Attaches Forming to a … a. Plural -s dogs N N b. Possessive (genitive) –‟s Bill‟s hat N N c. 3 rd person singular nonpast -s She sings lovely. V V d. Progressive -ing She is singing lovely. V V e. Past tense –ed He cooked dinner. V V f. Past participle –en/-ed He has cooked a meal. V V g. Comparative –er cheaper A A h. Superlative –est cheapest A A 31

S Z U Some English derivational affixes Below is the list of some derivational affixes in English. The table tells you what the affix means, what it attaches to (what part of speech) and what part of speech it forms once attached. 32

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S Z U Shorthand notation for describing rules In the above tables, the two rightmost columns describe how the morpheme in question interacts with syntactic category. Linguists have a shorthand notation for describing these changes: (This means “-able affixes to a V and produces an A”. ) 37

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S Z U Derivational vs. Inflectional There are some differences between these two bound morphemes, which are as follows: 39

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S Z U The Formation of Words 41

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Characteristics of Creating new words • Sometimes the new words are a derived form of the same class as in boyhood, childhood, principleship. The suffixes –hood, ship produce nouns out of nouns. These are called “Class-maintaining” 62 S Z U

S Z U Word Formation Sometimes the derived words are changing their parts of speech as in teacher, boyish, development, national. The suffixes –er, -ish, ment, -al are the suffixes which change the parts speech. –er is added to the verb teach, has become a noun. In boyish, a noun boy has become an adjective after suffixing the –ish. These are called “Class-changing” morphemes. 63

S Z U • Some morphemes which serve as roots for derivational forms but which never appear as free forms. In words such as conclude, preclude, include, exclude, the clude is called “Bound Base” which serves as roots for derivational forms. And so is the –ceive in receive, perceive, deceive. 64

S Z U • There are two ways to form or create new words. • Major Rules (inflection, derivation, compounding • Minor Rules (borrowing, conversion, shortening, blending, backformation, stress interchange) 65

S Z U • Derivational Affixes In English Language both prefixes and suffixes can be derivational affixes. Adding a derivational affixes may change the form class of the morphemes. The function of derivational affixes is to change one part of speech into another. According to function derivational affixes can be classified into following types 66

S Z U • Nominalyzer • Adjectivizer • Verbalizer • Adverbalizer 67

S Z U Nominalyzer • Denominalyzer • Denominal adjectivizer • Denominal verbalizer 68

S Z U • What is Nominalyzer? Nominalyzer means make a noun. Parts of speech are changed into each other to create nouns. 69

S Z U • Denominalyzer: (Noun): This means change noun to noun. Some affixes are used to create a noun from another noun. They are as follows: 70

S Z U Suffixes • ship: by adding this suffix, change noun in to noun. It shows state, condition Examples: • Friend-friendship, relation-relationship, championship In the above examples the suffixes ‘ship’ shows relationship. • hood: by adding this suffix at the end of noun, change noun to noun. Shows condition or state Examples: Child-childhood, brother-brotherhood, man-manhood, neighbor-neighborhood. 71

S Z U • er/n/ese/ish: by adding these suffixes at the end of noun change noun to noun. – er : - London-Londoner, New York-New Yorker. – ese: - Japan-Japanese, China-Chinese – n : - Italy-Italian, Korea-Korean – ish : - Turkey-Turkish, Spain-Spanish 72

S Z U • Cy: added to nouns to make nouns. It indicates state. Example: • President – presidency 73

S Z U • dom: by adding suffix ‘dom’ at the end of noun, change noun to noun. Means domain, or condition Examples: • King-Kingdom, star-stardom, But remember that the suffix ‘dom’ is unproductive; we cannot find more examples. 74

S Z U Prefixes • ex: - by adding prefix ‘ex’ change noun to noun. Means post and equal Examples: • Ex-wife, president- ex-president, roommate- ex-roommate. • Note: we can not use ‘ex’ for father, mother, sister, brother also for animals. • dis : - by adding this prefix, change noun to noun. Means apart, not, opposite, negation, removal Examples: • Continuation-discontinuation. 75

S Z U Deadjectival nominalyzer: It means change adjective to noun. Just we use suffixes • Ness: by adding suffix –ness at the end of an adjective, change an adjective in to a noun Exmaple: • Happy – happiness, sick – sickness, weak-- weakness 76

S Z U • Ity: by adding this suffix at the end of an adjective, change an adjective in to a noun. Example: • Possible – possibility, responsible – responsibility, personal -- personality 77

S Z U • dom: - by adding this suffix at the end of an adjective, change an adjective in to a noun Example: • Free – freedom, wise-wisdom These are the two common words in English language. 78

S Z U Deverbal nominalizer: this means change verb in to noun. Suffixes • er, or, ess: - by adding these suffixes to the end of the verb, change verb to noun Example: • er)-teacher, speak-speaker, cheat-cheater • (es)- act-actress, wait-waitress 79

S Z U tion: - by adding suffix ‘tion’ at the end of a verb, change a verb in to a noun Examples: • Complete-completion, collect-collection, correction – ment: - by adding this suffix to the end of verb, change verb to noun Examples: • Develop-development, entertain-entertainment, manage-management 80

S Z U ance: - by adding suffix ‘ance’ to the end of a verb, Change a verb in to a noun. Examples: • Appear-appearance, insist-insistence 81

S Z U Identifying nouns It is not always possible to identify a noun by its form. However, some word endings can show that the word is probably a noun. Examples: • -age postage, language, sausage • -ance/-ence insurance, importance, difference • -er/-or teacher, driver, actor -hood • childhood, motherhood, fatherhood 82

S Z U Example: -ism • socialism, capitalism, nationalism -ist • artist, optimist, pianist -itude • attitude, multitude, solitude -ity/-ty • identity, quantity, cruelty 83

S Z U Example: • -ment • excitement, argument, government • -ness • happiness, business, darkness • -ship • friendship, championship, relationship • -tion/-sion • station, nation, extension 84

S Z U Gerunds The -ing forms of verbs (gerunds) can also act as nouns. • Smoking is forbidden on all flights. • The City Council does its economic planning every September. 85

S Z U Adjectivizer What is Adjectivizer? Denominal adjectivizer: it means change noun to adjective. • Suffixes – less: - by adding this suffix to the end of noun, change noun to adjective 86

S Z U Examples: • Hope-hopeless, job-jobless, car-car less, money-moneyless – al: - by adding suffix ‘al’ to the end of a noun, change noun to adjective. Examples: • Music-musical 87

S Z U – ful: - by adding this suffix to the end of noun, change noun to adjective. Examples: • Beauty-beautiful, color-colorful, successful 88

S Z U ous: - by adding suffix ‘ous’ change noun to adjective. Examples: • Glory-glorious, fame-famous, courageous. ishlike: - by adding these suffixes to the end noun, change noun to Examples: • Child-childish, childlike 89

S Z U y: - by adding suffix ‘y’ at the end of noun, change noun to adjective. Examples: • Lucky, fun-funny, sun-sunny, dust-dusty. ly: - by adding the suffix at end of noun, change noun to adjective. Examples: • Love-lovely, friend-friendly, manly 90

S Z U Deverbal adjectivizer: it means that change verb to adjective. • Suffixes able, ible: - by adding these suffixes, change verb to adjective. Examples: • Suite-suitable, laugh-laughable, cut-cutable, imposable. 91

S Z U ive: - by adding this suffix, change verb to adjective. Examples: • Act-active, pass-passive, addit-additive, competecompetitive. al: - by adding this suffix, change verb to adjective. Examples: • Practice-practicable 92

S Z U Adjectival adjectivizer: this means that change adjective to adjective. Always use prefixes. • Prefixes In/im/ir/il: - by adding these prefixes at the beginning of adjective, change adjective to adjective. Examples: • Expensive-inexpensive, possible-impossible, polite-impolite, regular-irregular 93

S Z U Verbal verbalizer: it means make verb. Parts of speech are changed with each other t to make verb. Denominal verbalizer: this means change noun to verb. Uses suffixes and prefixes. 94

S Z U • Suffixes en: -by adding suffix ‘en’ to end of noun, change noun to verb. Examples: • Strength-strengthen, threat-threaten ize: -by adding this suffix, change noun to verb. Examples: • Computer-computerize, capital-capitalize. 95

S Z U fy: - by adding suffix ‘fy’, change noun to verb. Examples: • Beauty-beautify, class-classify • Prefixes en: - by adding prefix ‘en’ to the beginning of the noun, change noun to verb. Examples: • Force-enforce roll-enroll 96

S Z U de : - by adding this prefix, change noun to verb. Examples: • Note-denote, port-deport, forst-deforst 97

S Z U Deadjectival verbalizer: this means by adding affixes with adjective, change adjective to verb. • Suffixes en: -by adding this suffix, change adjective to verb. Examples: • Weak-weaken fasten, fresh-freshen, brighten. 98

S Z U fy: - by adding suffix ‘fy’ to the end of adjective, change adjective to verb. Examples: • Specify, verify, falsify, certain-certify. ize: - by adding this suffix, change adjective to verb. • Global-globalize, special-specialize, generalize. 99

S Z U • Prefixes en: - by adding prefix ‘en’ to the beginning of the adjective, change adjective to verb. Examples: • Large-enlarge, able-enable. 100

S Z U be: - by adding this prefix, change adjective to verb. Examples: • Little-belittle. But note that it is unproductive. 101

S Z U Verbal verbalizer: This means change verb to verb (VERB-VERB). Only we use prefixes. • Prefixes re: - by adding prefix ‘re’ to beginning of the verb, change verb to verb. Examples: • Move-remove, present-represent, turn-return. 102

S Z U pre: - by adding this prefix, change verb to verb. Examples: • View-preview. Arrange-prearrange, talk-pretalk. ex: -by adding this prefix, change verb to verb. Examples: • Cite-excite. Aggregate-exaggerate. 103

S Z U dis: - by adding this prefix, change verb to verb. Examples: • Arrange-disarrange close-disclose, charge-discharge un: - by adding the prefix ‘un’ to beginning of the verb, change verb to verb. Examples: • Lock-unlock, do-undo, cover-uncover. 104

S Z U under: - by adding this prefix with the verb, change verb to verb. Examples: • Develop-under develop, pay-underpay. over: - by adding this prefix, change verb to verb. 105

S Z U Examples: • Sea-oversea, estimate-overestimate, work-overwork, pay-overpay, eatovereat. miss: - by adding this prefix with the verb, change verb to verb. Examples: • Undersand-missunderstand, trust-mistrust, use-misuse, spell-misspell, out: - by adding this prefix, change verb to verb. Examples: • Live-outlive, go-outgo, play-outplay. 106

S Z U assignment • Find out all adverb affixes. • Due date: 10 days before the final exam • If not, 10 marks will be deducted from your final score. • The assignment should have a cover letter, table of contents, preface, conclusion, and references. • hadiqais@gmail. com 107

S Z U Compounding • A compound is a lexical unit in which two or more lexical morphemes (free roots) are juxtaposed, e. g. aircraft, textbook, white-cup, slow-down, fingerprint. (Bahir Hussain and co -writers. ) • Compounds are found in all word classes. The most common types of compounds are: Nouns: car park, rock band 108

S Z U • Adjectives: heartbreaking, sugar-free, airsick • Verbs: oven-bake, baby-sit, chain-smoke • Adverbs: good-naturedly, nevertheless 109

S Z U • It is sometimes difficult to know where to put hyphens in words that are compound ed. It is also difficult to know whether to separate words (e. g. post box) or to join the words (e. g. postbox). In such cases, it is best to check in a good learner’s dictionary. 110

S Z U • Compound words • A compound word is two or more words linked together to produce a word with a new meaning: • tooth + brush = toothbrush eco + friendly = eco -friendly animal + lover = animal lover, animal husbandry 111

S Z U Types of Compound (Shape) • Open Compound: it can be freely, and there is a space between morphemes. e. g. bus driver, truck driver 112

S Z U • Hyphenated Compound: is a compound, which has a dash (hyphen) e. g. mother – in - law 113

S Z U • Solid Compound: is a compound in which there is no space and no dash e. g. classroom, classmate 114

Types of Compound (Grammatical) S Z U • Coordinate Compound (Copulative compound): in coordinate compounds the two elements are parallel. Both parts having the same parts of speech function, for instance ‘thirteen’ has the elements ‘three’ + ‘ten’. Another examples are paper-clip, land lord, mail man, singasong-wirter 115

S Z U • Subordinate Compounds (endocentric compound): in subordinate compounds one element modifies the other, for instance ‘ bus station’ means a station for bus. Here ‘bus’ modifies ‘station’. Other examples are boy school, school boy. Most compound are subordinate, with the first element modifies the second 116

S Z U • Synthetic Compounds (exocentric): have a complete sentence for their derivation. A ‘pick pocket’ is a parallel to ‘a person who picks pocket’. Other examples are ‘good-for-nothing’ means a person who is not of any value. A ‘topdog’ is a person occupying a foremost place. A ‘under-dog’ is a person who has to succeed or someone who is badly treated by others. 117

S Z U e. g. chatter-box: means lady talks too much meaninglessly. e. g. slow-couch: means a person who think, acts and speaks slowly e. g. hill-joy: means a dull person 118

S Z U Compound nouns We usually make compound nouns with a noun + noun, with a verb (or a word made from a verb) + noun, or with an adjective + noun: • noun + noun: earphones • verb -ing form + noun: parking ticket, wedding cake • verb base form + noun: rescue team • Verb + noun: cut-water • adjective + noun: blackboard • Noun + verb: hairdo, haircut…. . The usual spoken stress pattern is with stress on the first item (earphones, blackboard). 119

S Z U Writing compound nouns Many compound nouns are written as one word, but some are written with hyphens or spaces. In modern English, hyphens are less common than they were in the past. A good learner’s dictionary will tell you how each compound is usually written. Examples of one word • Bathroom, sheepdog, windscreen Examples of hyphens • check-in (check in), fire-fighter, son-in-law Examples of spaces • bottle opener. New Year’s Day, Prime Minister 120

S Z U Plurals of compound nouns We form the plural of most compounds by adding a plural ending to the last part of the compound: • We saw some large greenhouses with vegetables growing in them. • They’re building two new car parks in town. Note: The compounds mother-in-law, brother-in-law, etc. form their plurals on the first noun: • I’ve got one brother-in-law and two sisters-in-law 121

Compound nouns and spoken stress Compound nouns normally have the spoken stress on the first part: • CAR park, BATHroom, WEBsite, BROther-in-law, DOORbell, CHECK-in However, not all compound nouns follow this rule. Some have spoken stress on the second part, especially in proper names and titles: • Mount EVerest, Prime MINister, New YORK A good learner’s dictionary will tell you where to put the stress. 122 S Z U

S Z U Compound adjectives most commonly end in an adjective (e. g. homesick), or in an -ing or –ed adjective form (e. g. ground-breaking, short sighted). 123

S Z U • • • Adj + adj: dark-brown, dark-blue N + adj: sea green, snow-white, homesick Adv participle: home-made, peace-loving Participle adv: made up, grown up Numeral noun: a three-minute talk, a twostory building, a five-year plan 124

S Z U Compound verbs are far less common than compound nouns or adjectives. They can be made by making a verb from another word class, normally from an already existing compound noun (e. g. a daydream – to daydream). 125

S Z U • N + V: kidnap, to hen pick, baby-sit • Adv + V: to double charge, overdo, overcut, sidestep 126

S Z U Writing compound words Sometimes compound words are written separately (nail polish), sometimes with a hyphen (short-sighted) and sometimes as one word (eyelashes). Often new compounds are written as two separate words and, as they become more familiar, they are either connected with a hyphen (-) or made into one word 127

S Z U There are some general rules and guidelines for when to use hyphens: • when there is a prefix (e. g. post-war, pre-lunch, self-interest, semi-skilled) • when a compound adjective comes before a head noun (e. g. a well-known singer, an angrysounding email) • when the pre-head item in a compound is a single capital letter (e. g. U-turn, X-ray, D-day) 128

S Z U when words are difficult to recognize as compounds and could be confused • The band has decided to re-form. (form again) • The Government promise to reform the health system. (improve) 129

S Z U when compound adjectives containing numbers appear before a noun • A twenty-two-year-old cyclist won the race. • From here to Tokyo, that’s a twelve-hour flight at least. • If you’re not sure whether to use a hyphen, a good dictionary will tell you. 130

S Z U Hyphens are a form of dash (-) which we use between words or parts of words. • We can use hyphens to make compound words, most commonly compound nouns: French lorry-drivers have blockaded three ports. • Compound nouns formed with prepositions and particles are also usually separated by hyphens: Come and meet my father-in-law. Don’t wear too much make-up if you are planning to be in the sun. 131

S Z U • We use hyphens with compound verbs and with adverb + adjective compounds: I’m phoning to ask if you can baby-sit for us this evening. It’s a well-known fact that Labradors have a very nice temperament. 132

S Z U • We often use hyphens to separate words and prefixes: The vice-president will speak to the company on Monday. She met her ex-husband at a party last week. 133

S Z U • We also use hyphens to separate compound modifiers: The oven was red-hot when she touched it. A twelve-year-old girl was found alone in the large house. • We also sometimes use hyphens when we write out figures: There were sixty-eight people who applied for the job. Three-quarters of the voters did not reply to the questionnaire. 134

S Z U • However, hyphens are becoming less common and people often write several of the above words without hyphens or do not separate compound words at all. A common word with a hyphen such as post-box will also be seen as post box and postbox. • It is important to check the spelling of compound words in a good learner’s dictionary. 135

S Z U Minor rules 1. Conversion: it changes grammatical category without adding affixes • Slow (A): e. g. Turtle is very slow Please slow the car (V) 136

S Z U • Clean (V): e. g. clean (v) the board/ the board is clean (adj) • Book (N): e. g. This is a book (n)/ Please book (v) a ticket back to Dubai 137

S Z U 1. Shortened forms: divided into • Acronym • Abbreviation • Clipping 138

S Z U • Acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of other words. e. g. UNICEF, NATO, DACAAR, CARE • Abbreviations: are word derived from the initials of other words, but pronounce letter by letter. e. g. BBC, Mo. HE, SZU 139

S Z U • Clipping: It occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form. 1. Spelling Clipping: it is very similar to acronym and abbreviation but in spelling clipping, there is no exact rules of cutting parts of words and it is pronounced as whole. e. g. Dr. Mr. e. g. St. Rd 140

S Z U 2. Word Clipping: • Fore Clipping (aphaeresis) • Middle Clipping (Syncope) • Back Clipping (Apocopate) • Fore-and-after Clipping (Combination) 141

S Z U 1. Fore Clipping: the front of a word is clipped • Motor car = car, telephone = phone, omni bus= bus, earth quack – quack, airplane - plan 142

S Z U 2. Middle Clipping (Syncope): means clipping a middle of a word, usually dropping a letter or unstressed syllable in the middle of the word. e. g. market – mart, every – evry, Petter Pet 143

S Z U 3. Back Clipping: the back part is clipped. e. g. examination – exam, advertisement – ad, Mathematics – math, professor – pro. 144

S Z U 4. Back + Fore Clipping: the beginning and the end of the word are clipped. e. g. influenza – flu or flue 145

S Z U Blending It is the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term, and has an extra Meaning e. g. motor + hotel – motel, smoke + fog – smog, breakfast + lunch – brunch, television + broadcast – telecast, 146

S Z U Back Formation A very specialized type of reduction process is known as back – formation. In this way new words may be formed from existing words by ‘subtracting’ an affix thought be part of the old word. Television – televise, peddler – peddle, editor – edit, player – play, vacuum- cleaner – vacuum clean 147

S Z U Stress Interchange There are some words which change their category by changing the stress pattern. Usually nouns have stress on the first and verbs on the second. Enter (n) – en. TER (v), EXport (n) – ex. PORT(v) MIStake (n) – mis. TAKE (v) 148

S Z U syllable • Syllable is the point in a unit where the maximum breath-energy is perceptible and therefore, forms the peak or nucleus (formed by a vowel or a diphthong) of that unit. In a word like boy, place or fridge the vowels o, a, e and I, are the carriers of the breath-energy. They are syllabic. In sector and doctor this broken into two syllabic units sector and doc-tor. The more the vocalic peaks in a word, the greater is the distribution of breathenergy 149

S Z U syllable • We can better understand syllable from two angle: 1. its articulatory aspect, 2. internal structure. • From articulator: syllabification can be understood in terms of the movements of the sub-laryngeal organs which force a puff of air ‘upward’ through the vocal channel by a compression of the intercostals muscles'’ (R. H. Stetson). 150

S Z U Internal Structure of a syllble • Syllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are: • Onset and rhyme. Within the rhyme we find the nucleus and coda. Not all syllables have all parts; the smallest syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may not have an onset and a coda. 151

S Z U • Onset: the beginning sounds of syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. The nucleus is a vowel in most cases, although the consonants [r, l, m, n, ng] can also be the nucleus of a syllable. In the word peak, /p/ is onset, and /t/ is a coda 152

S Z U • Rhyme (rime): the rest of the syllable after onset. Rhyme can also be divided up: nucleus + coda. • Nucleus: as the name suggests, it is the core part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order to for a syllable to be present. Syllable nuclei are most often highly ‘sonorant’ or resonant sounds, which can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitch level. In English and most other languages most syllable nuclei are vowels. In English, in certain cases, the liquids [l, r], and nasals [m, n] and the velar nasal usually spelled ‘ng’ can also be syllable nuclei. 153

S Z U • Coda: is optional in some languages and highly restricted or prohibited in others. 154

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S Z U Phonotactics Rules • In English, for example, a words may begin with up to three consonants, but no more than three • All phonological words must contain at least one syllable, and hence must contain at least one syllabic element such as a vowel or sonorant • If onset has one consonant, the second can be any kinds of consonants. • If onset has two consonants, the first must be obstruent [p, t, k, d, f, g] and the second must be sonorant [r, l, m, n, ng] e. g. problem 156

S Z U • If an onset has three consonants, the first must be [s], the second must be [p, t, k] and the third must be liquids [r, l] or glids [w, y]. e. g. spring, 157

S Z U • The syllable structure analysis of the words ‘read’, ‘flop’, and ‘window’ are as follows. Read= one syllable. Onset = [r] Rhyme= [id] (within the rhyme: ) nucleus= [i]. Coda= [d] 158

S Z U • Flop = one syllable Onset = [fl] Rhyme = [ap] Nucleus = [a], Coda = [p] 159

S Z U • Window = 2 syllables First syllable= [win] Onset = [w] Rhyme = [ln] Nucleus = [l] Coda = [n] 160

S Z U Second syllable = [do] Onset = [d] Rhyme = [o] Nucleus = [o] Coda = [0] (this syllable has no coda) 161

S Z U Types of Syllable • Syllables can be of two types, open and closed • This classification is made on the basis of their ending. Syllables ending in vowels or diphthongs are known as open: do. Those that end in consonants are called closed or checked syllables: sit, eat 162

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S Z U End 164