Pragmatics LECTURE 6 Prof Roseline 1 Pragmatics Invisible

Pragmatics LECTURE - 6 Prof. Roseline 1

Pragmatics – Invisible Meaning Pragmatics deals with language from the user’s point of view, especially the choice of words he makes, the calculations he has in mind once involved in social interaction, and the effect of his words on other people. Heated Attendant Parking The words in the sign may allow these interpretations, but we would normally understand that we can park a car in this place, that it’s a heated area, and that there will be an attendant to look after the car the sign may indicate a place where parking will be carried out by attendants who have been heated interpretation of the “meaning” of the sign is not based solely on the words, but on what we think the writer intended to communicate. a sale of clothes & other items for babies Prof. Roseline 2

Context relates the surrounding situation in which an utterance is uttered in speech or a sentence is written is writing CONTEXT Physical Context In terms of where the conversation is taking place, what objects are present, what actions are occurring, and so forth. Epistemic Context what speakers know about the world. For example, what background knowledge is shared by the speakers is crucially part of your epistemic knowledge when you have a conversation with someone else? EXAMPLE Think about the discussion of the library scene Two people come into a library and they are talking really loud. They sit at your table and continue their babbling. So, you look up at them and say: "Excuse me, could you please speak up a bit more? I missed what you said. " What do we know pragmatically about your utterance? What contributes to our understanding of why its literal meaning (i. e. please speak up) departs so much from what its intended meaning is (i. e. shut up!)? Consider some of the contextual properties of the utterance. Prof. Roseline Linguistic Context (or) Co Text The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence Social Context The relationship speakers hearers social among and • physical: the conversation occurs in a library • epistemic: libraries are quiet places • linguistic: sarcastic tone of voice (intonation cues are linguistic) • social context: you have the right to ask someone to be quiet in a place where people are supposed to be quiet, especially if their rule-breaking is injurious to the needs of others, which overrides the social norm of not giving orders to total strangers. 3

Deixis refers to the world outside a text obvious examples of bits of language that we can only understand in terms of the speaker’s intended meaning You’ll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn’t here today. contains a large number of expressions (you, it, tomorrow, she, here, today) that rely on knowledge of the immediate physical context for their interpretation Technically known as deictic expressions, which means “pointing” via language. The linguistic forms of this pointing are called deictic expressions, deictic markers or deictic words; they are also sometimes called indexicals. Deixis Anaphoric Deixis BACKWARD POINTING, and is the norm in English texts. Examples include demonstrative pronouns: such, said, similar, (the) same. Cataphoric Deixis FORWARD POINTING. Examples include: the following, certain, some (“the speaker raised some objections. . . ”), this (“Let me say this. . . ”), these, several. Prof. Roseline 4

Deixis PERSON DEIXIS English does not use personal deixis to indicate relative social status in the same way that other languages do But the pronoun we has a potential for ambiguity, i. e. between exclusive we (excludes the hearer) and the hearerincluding (inclusive) we. him, them, those idiots Reference TO POINT TO THINGS SPATIAL DEIXIS The use of proximal and distal expressions in spatial deixis is confused by deictic projection. This is the speaker's ability to project himself or herself into a location at which he or she is not yet present. A familiar example is the use of here on telephone answering machines (“I'm not here at the moment. . . ”). (here, there, near that) TEMPORAL DEIXIS Psychological distance can apply to temporal deixis as well. We can treat temporal events as things that move towards us (into view) or away from us (out of view). (now, then, last week) As an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something To perform an act of reference, we can use proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer, Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she, it). Sometimes assume that these words identify someone or something uniquely, but it is more accurate to say that, for each word or phrase, there is a “range of reference. ”, An expression such as the war doesn’t directly identify anything by itself, because its reference depends on who is using it. Prof. Roseline 5

Inference is a deductive reasoning process which starts from a set of premises to achieve a conclusion following these premises. Example A. Are you coming to the Market? B. I've spent all my money. E. g. When you see that the sky is gray, - infer that it is likely to rain while in the observation. Inferences are made when a person (or machine) goes beyond available evidence to form a conclusion Anaphora Subsequent mentioning of a formerly introduced item, as in the following sentences ‘He went to a shop’, ‘ It was closed’. We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath. The puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet. When he let go, it jumped out of the bath and ran away. Antecedent: the first mention of someone or something later referred to via anaphora The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath are anaphoric expressions. The connection between an antecedent and an anaphoric expression is created by use of a pronoun (it), or a phrase with the plus the antecedent noun (the puppy), or another noun that is related to the antecedent in some way (The little dog ran out of the room). The connection between antecedents and anaphoric expressions is often based on inference. Prof. Roseline 6

We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small. I caught a bus and asked the driver if it went near the downtown area. We have used the term “inference” here to describe what the listener (or reader) does. When we talk about an assumption made by the speaker (or writer), we usually talk about a “presupposition. ” Presupposition When people make use of such linguistic devices they necessarily make some assumptions about the knowledge of the speaker. Some of the assumptions might be wrong, most of them are usually correct what makes the exchange of information smooth. What the producer of discourse correctly assumes to be known by the text’s recipient is described as a presupposition. Your brother is waiting outside, an obvious presupposition that you have a brother. Why did you arrive late? , there is a presupposition that you did arrive late. When did you stop smoking? , there at least two presuppositions involved. In asking this question, the speaker presupposes that you used to smoke and that you no longer do so. Questions like this, with built-in presuppositions My car is a wreck or the negative version My car is not a wreck, the underlying presupposition (I have a car) remains true despite the fact that the two sentences have opposite meanings. This is called the “constancy under negation”. Prof. Roseline 7

SPEECH ACTS the action performed by a speaker with an utterance to describe actions such as “requesting, ” “commanding, ” “questioning” or “informing. ” I’ll be there at six, - performing the speech act of “promising. ” Structures Functions Did you write the answer? Interrogative Question Open the Door (please)! Imperative Command (Request) You wrote the answer Declarative Statement greeting (e. g. , hello, goodbye) informing (e. g. , I'm going to get a cookie) demanding (e. g. , Give me a cookie) promising (e. g. , I'm going to get you a cookie) requesting (e. g. , I would like a cookie, please) Prof. Roseline 8

SPEECH ACTS DIRECT SPEECH ACT INDIRECT SPEECH ACT An action in which the form used (e. g. interrogative) directly matches the function (e. g. question) performed by a speaker with an utterance Did you…? , Are they…? Can we…? An action in which the form used (e. g. interrogative) does not directly match the function (e. g. request) performed by a speaker with an utterance, in contrast to a direct speech act function of a question, it is described as a DIRECT SPEECH ACT -Can you ride a bicycle? Can you pass the salt? . not really asking someone’s ability a question about INDIRECT SPEECH acts seems to be that actions such as requests, presented in an indirect way (Could you open that door for me? ), are generally considered to be more gentle or more polite in our society than direct speech acts You left the door open - a declarative structure and, as A DIRECT SPEECH ACT, if you say this to someone who has just come in you would probably want that person to close the door. You are not using the imperative structure. You are using a declarative structure to make a request. It’s another example of AN INDIRECT SPEECH ACT. Prof. Roseline 9

Politeness FACE showing awareness and consideration of another person’s face. a person’s public self-image as described in the study of politeness FACE-THREATENING ACT Give me that paper!), saying something that represents a threat to another person’s self-image Some one having more social power than the other person Could you pass me that paper? , - removes the assumption of social power. This makes your request less threatening to the other person’s face. FACE-SAVING ACT. saying something that reduces a possible threat to another person’s self image Prof. Roseline 10

Negative & positive face Negative Face The need to be independent and free from imposition Positive Face the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of a group FACE-SAVING ACT that emphasizes a person’s negative face will show concern about imposition I’m sorry to bother you…; I know you’re busy, but… A face-saving act that emphasizes a person’s positive face will show solidarity and draw attention to a common goal Let’s do this together…; You and I have the same problem, so… Ideas about the appropriate language to mark politeness differ substantially from one culture to the next. Prof. Roseline 11

THANK YOU Prof. Roseline 12