LEXICOLOGY a branch of linguistics dealing with the

LEXICOLOGY a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language

ETYMOLOGY a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words

THE ETYMOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY THE NATIVE ELEMENT: 25 -30% I. Indo-European element II. Germanic element III. English Proper element THE BORROWED ELEMENT: 70% • I. Celtic (5 -6 c. A. D. ) • II. Latin (1 c. B. C. ; 7 c. A. D. ; the Renaissance per. ) • III. Scandinavian (8 -11 c. A. D. ) • IV. French (Norman-1113 c. A. D. Parisian. Renaissance) • V. Greek (Renaissance) • VI. Italian (Renaissance & later) • VII. Spanish (Ren-ce & later) • VIII. German • IX. Oriental • X. Russian

~ I-E stock — have cognates in the vocabularies of different I-E languages a) terms of kinship: father, mother, son, daughter, sister, brother cousin, aunt, uncle ˂ French; b) elements of nature: sun, star, stone, hill, moon, wind, water, tree, wood; c) animals: cat, wolf, mouse, crow, bull, cow, goose, fish; d) parts of human body: heart, arm, ear, back, foot, nose, lip, knee, tongue; e) basic verbs: do, eat, sleep, go, come, sit, stand, bear, know; f) basic physical properties & colours: hard, light, quick, thin, thick, slow, cold, white, red blue ˂ French; g) auxilary, modal verbs: can, must, may, shall, will; h) pronouns: personal (they ˂ Scand. ), demonstrative; i) numerals: 1 -100 (except 9 — Common Germanic)

~ Common Germanic origin — have cognates in Germ. , Goth. , Swed. , Norw. , Iceland. , Dutch, but not in Fr. , Rus. , Lat. nouns: summer, winter, spring (autumn—Fr. ), storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, room, coal, iron, lead, hat, shirt, shoe, evil, hope, life, need, rest, ship, sea, cheek, hand, cloth, chicken, bone; verbs: hear, forget, follow, live, make, send, sing, shake, burn, bake, keep, meet, rise, learn, buy, drive, see; adjectives: dead, deaf, dear, deep, heavy, sharp, soft, broad; pronouns: all, each ~The English proper element — specifically English words which have no cognates in other languages whereas for native words of Indo-European and Common Germanic stocks such cognates may be found: lady, lord, boy, girl, woman, daisy

CORRELATION GERMANIC INDO-EUROPEAN P T K F ϴ H B D G P T K

Features characteristic of native w-s : 1) comparatively simple morphological structure; 2) stability; 3) high frequency value; 4) plurality of meanings; 5) a great role in word-formation; 6) combinative power in Phraseology

BORROWING BORROWED WORD LOAN WORD a word taken from another language & modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of a target language (English)

Source of borrowing the language, from which the loan word was taken into English. Origin of borrowing the language, to which the word may be traced paper < Fr. papier < Lat. papyrus < Gr. papyros table < Fr. la table < Lat. tabula s/b o/b

CELTIC BORROWINGS Avon, Dover, Exe, Esk, Ux ˂ Celtic words meaning “river”, “water”. the THAMES ˂ Celt. (river name) LONDON < Celt. Llyn (another Celtic word for “river”) + dun (“fortified hill”) — “fortress on the hill over the river” Arthur — благородный Donald — гордый вождь Evan — молодой воин

LATIN STRATIFICATION 1 -st c. B. C. The earliest group of borrowings: concrete names 7 -th c. A. D. Christianization persons, object, ideas associated with church & religious rituals: priest, monk, nun, deacon, abbot, pope, candle, altar angel, organ, psalm. exception: CHURCH, DEVIL ˂1 -st c. B. C. Renaissance mostly abstract words: necessary incredible rational testify subdivide magnify interrupt temperate stupor nervous individual promote etc.

FRENCH BORROWINGS 3 languages on the territory of the British Isles ANGLOSAXON cow sheep swine calf FRENCH till the 14 c. — a state language beef mutton pork veal LATIN church universities

SCANDINAVIAN BORROWINGS OE steorfan (sterben Mn. G) was replaced by Sc. die now: “starve” has changed its meaning OE heofon (небо) was replaced by Sc. sky “heaven” has narrowed its meaning. sk, sc take get want die call hit happen husband fellow window happy ill ugly weak wrong loose till etc. Duodecimal system: counting — in twelves the marketing unit of a dozen the measuring formula of 12 inches to a foot the monitory equation of 12 pence to a shilling the legal entity of a jury of 12 good men & true

GREEK BORROWINGS

THEATRE: tragedy comedy drama farce epic lyric author theme act scene poem poet period prologue episode epilogue part phrase dialogue SCIENCE: subjects, their terms SPORTS: gymnastics athlete acrobat stadium Olympic trophy NAMES: Helen Irene Sophia Catherine Cora Margaret Alexander Peter Nickolas Eugene George Philip Theodor DOUBLE CONSONANTS ph [f], ps [s], pn [n], ch [k], rh [r], rrh [r] th DIPHTHONGS: oe ae eu PREFIXES: a- amphi- anti- auto- dia- epi- hyper- hypo- neo- parapoly- proto- pseudo- mono- di- tri- tetra- penta- hexa- hepta- octodeka- hecata- kilo. NOUNS AS PREFIXES: hydro- aero- pyro- bio- geo-

RUSSIAN BORROWINGS the XVI c. Ivan the Terrible: tsar, tsarina, , tsarevitch, icon, doukhobors, troika, shuba, beluga, sterlet, etc. sovietisms russian borrowings of the Soviet epoch that represent the words of strongly expressed social & political content soviet, the Supreme Council of the USSR, regional soviet, bolshevik, Leninism, self-criticism, sundying (воскресник), kulak, trotzkyite, collective farm, producers’ cooperative, house of culture, people’s actorconsumers’ cooperative, pioneers’ palace, etc.

TRANSLATION LOAN wall newspaper — Rus. стенная газета chain-smoker — Germ. Kettenraucher homesick — Germ. Heimweh masterpiece — Germ. Meisterstüc populist — R. народник by heart — Fr. par coer goes without saying — Fr. cela va sans dire a slip of the tongue — Lat. Lapsus Lingue

SEMANTIC LOAN pioneer— orig. “explorer”, “one who is among the first in new fields of activity”— under the influence of the Rus. Word “пионер” began to mean “a member of the Young pioneers’ Organization” dream—orig. “joy & music”— under the influence of Germ. “draum”(мечта) → has taken its modern meaning (cf. Rus. “дрёма”) bloom—orig. “metal”— underthe influence of Germ. “blōm”(a blossom, flower) → having flowers bread—OE “piece”— by association with Sc. “braud” it has taken its modern meaning.

ASSIMILATION a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving (target) language and its semantic system.

TYPES OF ASSIMILATION PHONETICAL GRAMMATICAL SEMANTIC

Phonetical assimilation The long [e], [ε] in the end of w-s → [ei]; transfer of the stress to the 1 st syllable: honour, reason. Grammatical assimilation Rus. “степь”: 6 cases → E. Sg. steppe, steppe’s; Pl. steppes, steppes’ 2 forms of plurality: vacuum—vacua, vacuums virtuoso (It. )—virtuosi, virtuosos

Semantic assimilation Specialization sport < OFr (pleasure, entertainments in general) → ME in this character, but gradually acquired the additional meaning of outdoor games & exercises, & in this new meaning was borrowed into many European languages & became international. сargo < Sp. (highly polysemantic) > 1 meaning (goods carried in a ship) timbre ˂ Fr. ( a № of meanings) ˃ 1 meaning (a musical term) hangar (a large building in which aircraft are kept) < Fr. (shed) revue (a theatrical performance consisting of songs, dances, and jokes about recent events) < Fr. (обзор, обозрение)

Generalization terrorist (a person who uses violence, especially murder and bombing, in order to achieve political aims) ˂ Fr. orig. : “Jacobin”, “supporters of the Jacobins in the French Revolution, who advocated repression and violence in pursuit of the principles of democracy and equality” move (Fr movoir) ˃ in Md. E “propose”, “change one’s flat”, “mix with people” etc. umbrella (It. “shade”) ˃ “sunshade / parasol” → + “the protection from the rain”

Folk Etymology sur(o)under (Fr. “overflow”) ˃ E. “rounder” was associated by mistake with “round”→ “ to surround” was interpreted as “ enclose on all sides, encircle” estandard (OFr. “a flag, banner”˂ Lat. “to spread”) ˃E. was wrongly associated with “to stand” → “standard” acquired the meaning of “smth. stable, officially accepted” mousseron (OFr. ) → “mushroom”: the 2 familiar elements used to approximate the foreign sounds (“mush”= “soft pulp”) have nth. to do with the item itself

DEGREES OF ASSIMILATION COMPLETELY ASSIMILATED PARTLY ASSIMILATED NONASSIMILATED (BARBARISMS)

COMPLETELY ASSIMILATED ~ older borrowings : the earliest Latin borrowings, Scandinavian, French; ~ follow all morphological, phonetical, orthographical standards of English. Their phonetical characteristics don’t reveal their nature: cf. sport & start; ~ very frequent, stylistically neutral, may occur as dominant words in synonymic groups; take an active part in wordformation

PARTLY ASSIMILATED aren’t assimilated: a) semantically — denote objects, notions specific to the country from ~ they are taken : sari Khan shah rajah sheik bei minoret harem dervish toreador sombrero sherbet (arab. ) pelmeni valenki raviolli domino b) grammatically — retain their original grammatical forms : phenomenon – phenomena, bacillus – bacilli, crisis – crises, sanatorium – sanatoria. c) phonetically — borrowed after the 17 th c. : police, machine, cartoon the stress — on the last syllable bourgeois, protege, boulevard, prestige, regime, camouflage — the stress + [ᴣ ] & [wa: ] d) graphically—are mainly of the French origin : restaurant, corps, bouquet, ballet, cliché ragout

BARBARISMS ciao, addio, Führer, Wehrmacht, bon vivant [bo: η vi′vaη] – прожигатель жизни, Vita brevis est ˂ Lat, ad libitum – at pleasure (Lat) gallicisms — unassimilated French words (approximately 2239). by press, journalists, high level society chauffeur, prestige, Cherchez la femme, Ce la vi! hors d’oeuvre [ o: ΄də: v], au fait, au fond, au naturel, au revoir, affair de coeur, coup d’etat, coup de theatre, coup d’essai, coup d’oeil, coup de grace

Reasons for Borrowings 1) historic development of peoples — the vocabulary system of each language is particularly responsive to every change in the life of the speaking community; 2) to fill a gap in vocabulary — there were no words, denoting new objects, notions; 3) a new word represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring → enlarges groups of synonyms & enriches the expressive resources of the vocabulary: Lat. cordial + nat. friendly, Fr. desire + nat. wish, Lat. admire, Fr. adore + nat. like, love.

ETYMOLOGICAL HYBRIDS nat. + able (Lat. ) = readable, eatable, likable, answerable un + E. +able = unbearable, unbelievable, unsayable bor. + nat. = painful, violins, noiseless, fruitless, bicycles (Lat. bi- + Gr. cycle + s) aircraft =Gr. + nat. blackguard = nat. + Fr. dislike = Rom. + nat. moneyless, courtly, gentleman = Fr. + nat. woman-servant, blackguard = nat. + Fr. violinist = It. + Gr.

ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS 2 or more words of the same language, derived from the same basic word by different ways & differing to a certain degree in form, meaning & current usage

discus (L. ) > disc & dish, castella (L. ) — castle & chateau(Fr. ) [΄ʃætəu] sir (Fr. ) > senior (L. ) & sir (E. ) OE hāl > whole & hale (hale & hearty) raid & road shirt & skirt screech & shriek scabby & shabby raise & rear chase & catch captain & chieftain channel & canal gage & wage chivalry & cavalry chart & card chattels & cattle Etymological triplets hospital – hostel – hotel train –trace – trail

INTERNATIONAL WORDS words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source.

POLITICS: persona non grata, imperialism, class, antagonism, system, consolidation, etc. ART: sonata, music, melody, opera, ballet etc. ECONOMY: economic, basis, exploitation, industry, tractor, machine, collective, credit, etc. SCIENCE: subjects, terms, measures amper, Volt, Watt, kilometer, etc. comparatively new words : computer, genetic code, algorythm, mikrofield, byonics, antenna, etc. There are some international w-s long ago firmly established in the lang-e : time, minute, second, opera, professor, club, sport, bar, jazz, cowboy, etc. RUSSIAN WORDS: tsar, tsarina, intelligentsia, decembrist, Kremlin, lunochod, steppe, sambo, rouble, perestroyka, glasnost, soviet, etc.

English & American words—universally employed on every continent baby-sitter bar bridge (the game) boyfriend best seller bikini bulldozer bus beefsteak cafeteria cocktail flirt gangster hamburger hot dog ice cream jazz jeep kleenex party racket sandwich scooter shorts sex appeal striptease steak taxi whisky weekend, O’KAY