Written Communication The Communication Process and Written Communication

Written Communication The Communication Process and Written Communication Written communication differs from oral communication in that : It is more likely to involve creative effort It has longer cycles It usually has fewer cycles

Plan-Write –Revise Approach Plan your writing Need for Planning- Planning answer us the following questions: What do we want to accomplish? How can it best be accomplish? We prepare both routine and non routine messages Routine Message Daily activities; accepting an invitation; commending an employee, responding to a customer’s request; requesting for additional information Non-routine Employee performance appraisal, a grievance response, a proposal for a new product, and a progress report Message

Routine Message Non-routine Message Routine message are easier to write than non- Non-routine message are not written in response to ordinary daily activities. routine message. Writers who have developed good writing habits can complete routine messages in one draft If the message is routine or simple , we may not need to put our planning steps in writing at all; with experience we may be able to plan the entire message mentally Steps in Planning No one should expect to write non-routine messages quickly or in one draft. If the message is non-routine or difficult, w should make complete notes during the planning stage, followed outline. • To read the correspondence carefully • Annotate by underlining or highlighting key points • If necessary , we can make notes or develop an outline on a separate sheet • Obtain previous correspondence or other necessary information before begin to write

Write Why am I writing? How shall I present my message? What background information do I need? Where shall I tell my reader the unpleasant news? Who needs to have this information? We should also check the arrangement of the information within the message to be sure that the information appears in the order of its importance or in the order in which you want the reader to receive the information. Revise Revision means being objective about our writing and analyzing the message in order to strengthen it. It means being critical, even when we think we have written masterpiece

Worrying Revising Planning Draft 15% 10% 45% 25% 5% Writing Draft Proofreading Writing process time

Principles of effective writing Effective writing use the five C’s of writing Clear Concise Complete Correct Courteous Is the Message Clear Have we clarified in our own mind what we want to say before we begin to write? Will our reader understand what we are trying to communicate? Unclear Clear I can recommended him as an employee without qualification I can recommend him as a highly qualified employee

Is the Message Concise Eliminate irrelevant and unnecessary words. Business writing should convey messages as efficiently as possible. The message should be brief, as long as clarity and courtesy are not sacrificed in the process. Have I used only the essential words ? Have I included the information necessary for my reader understanding? Wordy Concise Have you as yet had an opportunity to make a decision regarding the job offer we spoke about by phone several weeks ago Have you decided to accept our job offer?

Is the Message Complete? Complete writing involves thinking about your reader and the reader’s purpose. We must also consider how much information the reader require to have his or her questions answered or to understand the intended message. Incomplete We plan to meet on Tuesday at 8 in the conference room. Complete We will meet at 8 a. m. Tuesday. April 16 in the conference room in Sonargaon Hotel

Is the message Correct? Is the information factual? Is the message grammatically correct? To ensure that the message is correct, pay attention to details. Learn and practice proofreading techniques. Check for typical errors, including errors about time, place, and people. Refer to any previous correspondence and verify information. Incorrect You will not be effected by his change. Correct You will not be affected by this change.

Is the message courteous? Letters convey the company’s image as well as the writer’s to people outside the organization. Letter must convey the same tone of courtesy and respect that would be expressed in face-to-face communication. Discourteous I do not believe you have made an attempt to pay your bill. If you have a good reason, you certainly have not communicated it to us. Courteous You undoubtedly have a good reason for being unable to meet your obligation. If you wish to arrange a payment schedule, please phone me. If not, may we expect your check for the balance by July 31 st.

Suggestions for selecting word Selecting the right words depends on : • Our ability to use language • Our knowledge of the reader • Our good judgment

“Simplicity in writing. ” Reason. First: Many of us tend to write at too difficult a level. Instead of being ourselves we change our character when we write. Rather than being friendly, normal people, we become cold and stiff. We work to use big words and complex structure. Second : The writer usually knows the subject of the message better than the reader. Thus, the two are not equally equipped to communicate on that matter. If the writer does not work at reducing the message to the reader’s level, communication will be difficult. Third: According to the readability research writing slightly

Use Familiar Words Every day word- use in every day conversation The words with sharp and clear meaning. We should avoid the stiff, more difficult word that do not communicate so precisely or quickly. Difficult word are not all bad. Use them when they fit our needs and are understood. Unfamiliar words Familiar Words Endeavor Try Terminate End The conclusion ascertained from a perusal of pertinent data is that a lucrative market exists for the product The data studied show that the products in good demand

Choose Short Words Generally short words communicate better than long words. A heavy use of long words- even long words that are understood- leaves an impression of difficulty that hinders communication. All short words are not easy and not all long words are hard. Example : Gybe - short word but unknown Hippopotamus , automobile, bicycle, etc. - long word but known Short Words Long Words They acceded to the proposition They agreed to quit business. to terminate business. Definitive action was effected subsequent to the reporting date. Final action was taken after

Use technical words and Acronyms with Caution Avoid Use Covered employment Employment covered by social security Cerebral vascular accident Little stroke Initials ( including acronyms) should be used with caution. Some initials such as IBM, are widely recognized, others, such as XML (extensible markup language), are not. BCS – Bangladesh Computer Society BCS – Bangladesh Civil Service

Use Active Voice Prefer the active voice to the passive voice. In active voice, the subject does the action. In passive voice, it receives the action. Active voice is stronger and shorter. Writing is more interesting and communicates better when it uses active voice. Passive Active The result were reported in our July 9 letter. We reported the result in our July 9 letter. The policy has been supported by our union. Our union supported this policy. The office will be inspected by Mr. Hall inspect the office.

Sometimes passive voice is preferable. Passive is better when the doer of the action is not important. Passive voice properly de-emphasizes the doer. Example: Advertising is often criticized for its effect on price. Petroleum is refined in Texas. Passive voice may enable us to avoid accusing our reader of an action. Example; : The damaged was caused by exposing the material to sunlight. The color desired was not specified in your order.

Passive voice also may be preferable when the performer is unknown. Example : During the past year, the equipment has been sabotaged seven times. Anonymous complaints have been received. Passive voice is also better when the write prefers not to name the performer. Example: The interviews were conducted on weekdays between noon and 6 pm Two complaints have been made about you.

Use Slang and Popular Clichés with Caution • At any given time in any society some slang words and clichés are in vogue. • They may convey a desired effect in a communication. But they are be likely to be meaningful only for the moment. • We should use such expressions sparingly and always only in informal communication with people who know and appreciate them.

Select Word with Right Strength and Vigor In a way, word are like people ; they have personalities. Some word strong and vigorous. Some are weak and dull. And some fall between extremes. Good writer know these differences, and they use them carefully. They use the words that do the best job of carrying the intended meaning. As a rule they make the stronger word stand out.

Selecting words with just the right personalities requires : • Learn language well – that we learn to distinguish shades of difference in the meanings of words. Example: Tycoon person > Eminently successful business Bear market > Generally declining market Boom > A period business of prosperity Mother > Female Parent

• We will not always want the stronger and most vigorous words. Sometimes , for good reason, we will choose weaker ones. Example : “Bill” (Strong but has harsh meaning in some minds) we may prefer “statement” The same goes for : debt and obligation, die and passed on, labor boss and union official , fired and dismissed.

• We should keep in mind that “verb” is the stronger part of speech. Second is the “noun”. Verb are action words, and action carries interest. Noun are the doers of action – the heroes of the sentence. Thus, they also attract attention. • “Adjectives” and “adverb” are weak words. They add length and distract from the key words, the nouns and the verbs. So, we should use them sparingly.

Use Concrete Language Good business communication is marked by words that from sharp and clear meanings in the mind. These are the concrete words. Concrete is opposite of abstract. Abstract words are vague. In contrast , concrete words stand for things the reader can see, feel, taste, or smell. Concrete word hold interest, for they refer to the reader’s experience.

Concreteness also involves how we put words together. Exact and specific wordings are concrete. ; general and vague wordings are abstract. Example : Abstract Concrete A significant loss A 53% loss Good attendance record 100 % attendance record In the near future By noon Thursday Light in weight A feather light.

Avoid Overuse of Camouflaged Verbs Avoid camouflaged verbs. We camouflaged a verb by changing it to a noun form and then adding action words. Avoid camouflaged verbs by (1) writing concretely (2) Preferring active voice (3) make subject persons or things (4) Write sentences in normal order.

Camouflaged verb Clear verb form An arrangement was made to meet for break fast. We arranged to meet for breakfast. Amortization of the account was effected by the staff. The staff amortized the account. Application of the mixture was accomplished. They applied the mixture. We must bring about a reconciliation of our differences. We must reconcile our differences.

Select Word for Precise Meanings Writing requires a knowledge of language. We study language and learn the shades of difference in the meanings of similar words. Example : Weary, tired , pooped, fagged out , exhausted All refer same things. Yet in most minds there are differences in the meaning of these words. For formal message – weary would be more acceptable than pooped, fagged out.

Money, funds, cash, dough, bread, finance. Boy , youth, young man, lad, shaver, stripling We should learn the specific meaning of other words. Knowledge of language also enable us to use words that carry the meaning we want to communicate. Example: “Fewer” – smaller number of items “less” - reduce value

Use correct idiom. Idiom is the way ideas are expressed in a language. Example : Faulty Idiom Careful about Comply to Different than Equally as bad In search for Listen at Correct Idiom Careful with Comply with Different from Equally bad In search of Listen to

SUGGESTION FOR NONDISCRIMINATORY WRITING Use gender-Neutral Word • Avoid Using Masculine Pronouns for Both Sexes We can avoid the use of masculine pronouns in such cases in three ways: First: We can reword the sentence to eliminate the offended word. Second : By making the reference plural. Third: one Use he or she, he/she, s/he, you, and person ( we should use such expression caution. )

Example : Avoid: If a customer pays promptly, he is placed on our preferred list. First : on our A customer who pays promptly is placed preferred list. Second: Third: placed If customers pay promptly, they are placed on our preferred list. If customer pays promptly, he or she are on our preferred list.

• Avoid Words Derived from Masculine Words Our culture was male dominated when our language developed. Because of this, many of our words are masculine even though they do not refer exclusively to men. Example: Gender-Neutral Avoid Chairman Salesman Chairperson, chair, presiding officer, moderator Manpower Sales person, salesclerk, sales representative Businessman Personnel, workers [ Fireman Cameraman Business executive, businessperson Fire fighter

• Avoid Word That Lower Status By Gender Example Avoid Gender-neutral Lady lawyer Lawyer Authoress Author Sculptress Poetess Poet

Avoid Words That Stereotype by Race, Nationality, etc Word that stereotype all members of a group by race, nationality or sexual orientation are especially unfair and frequently they reinforce stereotypical beliefs about this group. It is unfair : “Jews are miserly” “Italians are Mafia members” “ Hispanic are lazy” “African Americans can do only menial job. ”

Avoid Word That Stereotype by Age Be sensitive with term: Senior citizens, mature, elderly, golden ager, etc. Avoid : - Teenagers, adolescents Use : - young person, young man, young woman. Some slang term show lack of sensitivity: Brat, retard, dummy, juvenile delinquent, truant, runaway

Avoid Words That Typecast Those with Disabilities People with disability are likely to be discretionary words. Avoid use Deaf and Dumb Deaf Fits Epilepsy

CONSTRUCTION OF CLEAR SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPH • Emphasis on Short Sentences • Short sentences communicate better because of mind limitation. • Short means about 16 -18 words for middle level reader • The excessive use of short sentences is also bad. Short sentence are achieved in two ways: 1) 2) By limiting sentence content. By using words economically.

Economizing on Word s: Economizing on words generally means seeking shorter way of saying things. Some suggestion: Avoid cluttering phrases. Substitute shorter expressions. Avoid : In the event that payment is not made by January, operation will cease. Short : If payment is not made by January, operation will cease.

Cluttering Phrase Substitution Shorter Along the lines of like At the present time now For the purpose of for In accordance with. by

Eliminate Surplus Word Contain surplus word Eliminate surplus word There are four rules that should be observed. Four rules should be observed. The machine that are damaged by the fire were repaired. The machine damaged by the fire were repaired. I am prepared to report to the I am prepared to report that sales increased. effect that sales increased.

Roundabout Constructions Roundabout The president is of the opinion that the tax was paid. Direct The president believes the tax was paid The income must be used to retire the debt. It is essential that the income be used to retire the debt. He criticized everyone he met. He criticized everyone he come to contract with.

Unnecessary Repetition of Words or Ideas: Needless Repetition Eliminated Please endorse your name on the back of this check. Please endorse this check. We must assemble together at 10: 30 am in the morning We assemble at 10: 30 am Our new model is longer in length than old one Our new model is longer

Determining Emphasis in Sentences Design • We should give every items its due emphasis. • Short sentence emphasize contents. • Determining emphasize is a matter of good judgment. • Giving the Sentence Unity • All parts of a sentence should concern one thought.

There are three cause of unity error: 1) Placing unrelated ideas in a sentence violates unity We can avoid this error by: i) putting unrelated ideas in separate sentences, ii) subordinating an idea, iii) adding words that show relationship 2) Excessive detail is another cause of lack of unity, put it in a separate sentence. This means using short sentences.

3) Illogical Constructions can rob a sentence of unity. Illogical Construction Improved Job rotation is when you train people by moving them from job to job. Job rotation is a training method in which people are moved from job to job. My education was completed in 2004, and then I began work as a manager for Home Deport. I completed my education in 2004 and then began work as a manager for Home Deport.

Arranging Sentences for Clarity • Clear writing requires that we follow the establish rules of grammar • This rules are based on custom and logical relationships.

Care in Paragraph Design Giving the Paragraph Unity The content of a paragraph should concern one topic or idea(unity). But unity can vary in breadth. Paragraph unity concerns a narrow topic.

Keeping Paragraph Short Generally, paragraph should be short. Short paragraph show organization better than long ones. People simple prefer to read writing with frequent paragraph breaks. It is more inviting, and it appears less difficult. Readability research has suggested an average length of eight lines for longer papers such as reports. But length can, and should vary with need.

Making Good Use of Topic Sentences The topic sentence express the main idea of a paragraph, and the remaining sentences build around and support it. In a sense, topic sentence serves as a headline for the paragraph, and all the other sentence supply the story. But not every paragraph must have a topic sentence.

Leaving out Unnecessary Detail The chances are that we have more information than a reader needs. Thus, a part of our communication task is to select what we need and discard what we do not need. But deciding what to include is a matter of judgment. Giving the Paragraphs Movement Each paragraph should move an additional step toward the goal.

Types of Writing E-mails Letters Memos Agendas Reports Promotional Material Academic Documents Research (scientific) manuscripts White Papers Effective Writing Skills

Characteristics Of Business Letter Purposes of Letters q q q q q Inform Instruct Request Inquire Remit Order Advise Correct Question

Underlying Objectives of letter Get and hold attention Catching and keeping the attention of your reader are essential to getting action. A letter must begin in a way that appeals to the reader. The very first sentence must get and hold attention, capture interest, and make the reader want to continue reading. State the case clearly and concisely Most businesspeople are busy and have little time to waste trying to decipher the meaning of a letter. Nor do they have time to wade through lengthy paragraphs to extract desired information. When you state your message clearly and concisely; you are more likely to achieve the desired results. Establish confidence and get action Most people respond positively when they have confidence in the people with whom they are dealing.

FUNCTION OF A FIRST PARAGRAPH Get favorable attention Indicate what the letter is about Set a friendly, courteous tone Refer to previous correspondence, if appropriate FUNCTIONS OF MIDDLE PARAGRAPH Provide Background Information Provide Supporting Information FUNCTIONS OF LAST PARAGRAPH Request Action Conclude the Message Present a Positive Company Image

E-Mails � � � E-mail is fast, convenient and easy Email is now the dominant method of communicating in business. Convenient for communicating with people in different places and different time zones Easier to communicate with people who understand written form but don’t speak it well Excellent mechanism for follow-up or action items after a meeting Messages can be saved and retrieved easily Effective Writing Skills

E-Mails (Challenges) Email is not always confidential -- emails can sometime be obtained USE WITH CARE…. from central network even if deleted from personal Effective Writing Skills computers

Watch Out! Effective Writing Skills

E-Mails (Challenges) � Email is often sent out without re-reading, proof -reading and other standards applied to written communications. We press the send button too soon! � Emails can be forwarded and sent to others without our approval or knowledge Effective Writing Skills

E-Mails � Many users do not realize the potential outcome of what is being sent through e-mails � Business e-mails should be concise and to the point � The language used in business e-mails should not be overly informal Effective Writing Skills

E-Mail Manners � � � � Always include a subject or e-mail title Avoid the “ready, aim, fire” approach Avoid “flaming” Don’t be too-casual Consider if e-mail is the appropriate tool Make one point per e-mail Make the font user-friendly Don’t use all capital or lower-case letters Effective Writing Skills

Memos

What is Memo? � � A memo is a document typically used for communication within a company. Memos can be as formal as a business letter and used to present a report. However, the heading and overall tone make a memo different from a business letter. Because we generally send memos to coworkers and colleagues, we do not have to include a formal salutation or closing remark.

Purpose of a Memo Usually we write memos to inform readers of specific information. Managers use memos to inform and motivate employees. We might also write a memo to� persuade others to take action, or � give feedback on an issue, or � react to a situation. However, most memos communicate basic information, such as meeting times or due dates. Before writing a memo, outline what your purpose is for doing so, and decide if the memo is the best communication channel.

Types of Memos Each memo is written for a specific purpose to a specific audience. The purpose and audience for our memo will help guide what type of memo you will write. There are three basic reasons to write a memo: 1. to persuade action 2. to issue a directive 3. or to provide a report.

The Memo Format TO: Receiver(s), Title FROM: Your Name, Title DATE: Month Day, Year SUBJECT: BE SPECIFIC No Dear Sir, and so on No Yours Sincerely, and so on

Heading Format and Design A memo's heading provides information about who will receive the memo, who is sending the memo, the date, and the memo's subject. This information may be bolded or highlighted in some way. Additionally, you might also initial your name in the "FROM" line to indicate that you gave the memo a final approval. Sometimes organizations specify how to fill out the headings. If you are unsure, it may be a good idea to include your job title and your reader's. The memo will then be informative to someone new to the situation, or someone who received the memo after it was passed on from the original reader.

Message Memos are reproduced and exchanged rather freely, and it is common for a reader to receive a memo that is only marginally relevant to him or her. Opening Segment This is why it is important that the first sentence of the memo should answer that question with a purpose statement. The best purpose statements are concise and direct.

The gist of a memo should occur in the opening sentences/ paragraphs. It's a good idea to include: 1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving or the directive you are giving. Include only what your reader needs and be sure it is clear. Consider the following questions: Is your memo a result of a situation? For instance, "As a result of yesterday's meeting. . . " Is your memo a reminder? For example, "The Proposal is due July 2. " 2. The task A statement that describes what you are doing to deal with a situation.

Discussion Segment � The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep two things in mind: 1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that we will start with key findings or recommendations. 2. Start with our most general information and move to our specific or supporting facts. 3. For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible. 4. Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.

Closing Segment � We're almost done. After the reader has read our information, we want to close with a courteous ending stating what action we want our reader to take. � Make sure we consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how we can make those actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you and follow through on any decisions you make. "

Tone of A Memo Since we typically send memos to those working within our company, we can use a more informal tone than we would if we were writing a business letter. For example, we might refer to our colleagues by their first names or use humor. However, always keep in mind that you still need to be professional. Ask ourselves how the company's president would react to our memo. If we would be embarrassed to have the president read our memo, consider changing or eliminating information.

Length of a Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, we may have to write longer memos, depending on our topic. For example, a memo might present the new guidelines for a specific office task. Obviously, if we have over forty guidelines, the memo will be more than a page. Some memos might even introduce a short report. In this case, we might include the report in the memo, or the memo might be a separate document, introducing the report.

Format Guidelines Regardless of the style, memos generally have similar format characteristics, unless otherwise specified by the company. Listed below are some basic guidelines that can help us create a memo: • Memos have one-inch margins around the page and are on plain paper • All lines of the memo begin at the left margin • The text begins two spaces after the subject line • The body of the memo is single-spaced, with two spaces between paragraphs • Second-page headings are used, as in business letters • The second page includes who the Memo is to, the page number, and the date • The sender usually signs the Memo using initials, first name, or complete name

Directive Memo A directive memo states a policy or procedure we want the reader or co-worker to follow. The length of the memo depends on how much space is required to properly explain the procedure. The body of the memo should begin with a clear, concise sentence that states the purpose of the memo. For example: "The purpose of this memo is to let all members of the ABC department know that doughnuts will be provided every Friday morning at 8 a. m. " We then provide statements that explain the rationale for such a decision or procedure.

MEMORANDUM TO: Design Team #362 FROM: W. B. Working DATE: May 9, 2011 SUBJECT: Project Schedule As a result of yesterday's meeting, I suggest we follow the project schedule listed below. Remember, we must submit a Proposal by noon on July 2. Schedule Task Completion Date Divide research into groups and compile information June 6 Review designs from Kate and Bill. June 11 Write Proposal June 23 Review Proposal June 26 Submit Proposal for printing June 27

Persuasive Memorandum TO: FROM: Barbara Smith, Publication Manager Hannah Kaufman, Vice President HK DATE: October 14, 2010 SUBJECT: Need for New Memo Format I’ve noticed that we don’t seem to be able to communicate important changes, requirements and progress reports throughout the company as effectively as we should. I propose developing one consistent memo format, recognizable by all staff as the official means of communicating company directives. While I know this seems like a simple solution, I believe it will cut down on needless e-mail, improve universal communication and allow the staff to save necessary information for later referral. Please talk among yourselves to determine the proper points of memo writing and return the input to me by 12 noon. I will then send out a notice to the entire staff regarding the new memo format. Thank you for your prompt attention to this.

Response Memo The purpose of this memo is to provide the audience with desired information. It usually has four parts: purpose statement summary discussion action Begin this memo with a short paragraph stating the purpose, which is always to respond to a request for information. Next, summarize the information requested. Third, in a discussion section, point out to the reader any important information that you feel should be highlighted or stressed. Finally, in the action section, state any additional action you are going to take or feel should be taken to properly address the original request for information.

Field Report Memos are often used to report on inspection and procedures. These memos, known as field or lab reports, include the problem, methods, results, and conclusions, but spend less time on the methods section. A field or lab report memo has the following structure: purpose of memo summary problem leading to the decision to perform the procedure methods results conclusions recommendations

TO: MEMORANDUM Dean of Journalism FROM: Steve Nash DATE: June 27, 1999 SUBJECT: Computer Lab Purpose: This memo presents the findings of my visit to the computer lab at Clark C 252. Summary: In general, I felt that the lab needs much new equipment and renovation. Problem: The inspection was designed to determine if the present equipment was adequate to provide graduate students with the technology needed to perform the tasks expected of them by their professors and thesis research. Methods: I ran a series of tasks on SPSS and Word. Perfect and recorded memory capacity and processing time for each task. Results: The inspection found that the hardware used to run the computers is outdated and that the computers itself are very slow. Conclusions: This lab is inadequate for the everyday needs of graduate students in this department. Recommendation Four new computers running on Windows 98 and a processing speed of at least s: 233 mhz should be purchased immediately.

REPORT WRITING Defining report A business report is an orderly and objectives communication of factual information that serves a business purpose. Orderly communication – a report is prepared carefully. Care in preparation distinguishes report from casual exchange of information. Objectives : - quality of a report is its unbiased approach. Report seek truth. They avoid human biases. Communication : it covers all ways of transmitting meaning : speaking, writing, drawing and such. Factual information: it is based on events, record, data, and the like. A report must serve a business purpose.

Reports � � � Define the main point Define the goals and objectives Collect the evidence needed to support the main point Organize the report State the conclusions and recommendations

DETERMINING THE REPORT PURPOSE The Preliminary Investigation Getting our problem clearly in mind is largely a matter of gathering all the information needed to understand it and then applying our best logic to it. Need for a Clear Statement of the Problem We should express the problem clearly, preferably in writing. The problem statement normally takes one of three forms: 1. Infinitive phrase: “ To determine the causes of decreasing sales at Store X. ” 2. Question: “What are the causes of decreasing sales at Stores X? ” 3. Declarative statement: “ Store X sales are decreasing, and management wants to know why. ”

DETERMINING THE FACTORS Use Of Subtopics In Information Report For example : Problem Statement : To review operation of company X from January 1 through March 31. Subtopics: 1. Production 2. Sales and promotion 3. Financial status 4. Computer systems 5. Product development 6. Human resources Hypothesis For Problems Requiring Solution Hypothesis (possible explanations of the problem) may be the factors in problems requiring solution. Bases of Comparison in Evaluation Studies

GATHERING THE INFORMATION NEEDED The next step is to conduct the research needed. A personal investigation is usually appropriate. INTERPRETING THE FINDINGS Advice for avoiding human error 1. Report the fact as they are. 2. Do not think that conclusions are always necessary. 3. Do not interpret a lack of evidence as proof to the contrary. 4. Do not compare non comparable data. 5. Do not draw illogical cause-effect conclusions. 6. Beware of unreliable and unrepresentative data.

Appropriate Attitude and Practices 1. Maintain a judicial attitude. 2. Consult with others. 3. Test the interpretations Statistical Tools in Interpretation • Statistics permit us to examine a set of facts. • Descriptive statistics should help the most. • Do not allow statistical calculations to confuse the reader, they should help interpret.

ORGANIZING THE REPORT INFORMATION The Nature and Extent of Outline Introductory and Concluding Parts Organization by Division by Conventional Relationships Combination and Multiple Division Possibilities Wording of the Outline WRITING THE REPORT In writing the report, communicate clearly and quickly. Also give it these characteristics: Objectivity Time consistency Transition and Interest

Requirement Objectively Good report writing is objective. Keep out all bias. Seek truth. Objectivity As Basis For Believability Objective writing is believable. Objectivity And The Question Of Impersonal Versus Personal Writing Objective writing has meant writing impersonally ( no I’s, we’s, you’s). Recently, some writers have argued that personal writing is more interesting than impersonal writing and just as objectives. Good advice is to use personal style for routine reports and

Consistency in time viewpoint Keep a consistent time viewpoint throughout the report. There are two time view point: past and present. Select one, and do not change. The past-time viewpoint views the research and finding as past, and prevailing concepts and proven conclusions as present. The present-time viewpoint present as current all information that can be assumed to be current at the time of writing.

Need for Transition A well-written report reads as one continuous story. The parts connect smoothly. Much of this smoothness is the result of good , logical organization We should use transition to connect the parts of the report. Transition means a “bridging across. ” Transition should be used where there is a need to connect the parts of the report. For connecting large parts, transition sentences may be used. Use topic sentences also helps improve thought flow. Transitional words show relationships between lesser parts.

Maintaining Interest Report writing should be interesting. Interesting writing is necessary for good communication. Interesting writing is the result of careful word choice, rhythm, concreteness- in fact, all the good writing techniques. But effort to make writing interesting can be overdone. The writing style should never draw attention away from the information.

An overview of report structure Title Fly Title Page Letter of transmittal Table of content 2 nd step Title Page Letter of transmittal Table of content 1 st step 3 rd step Title Page Executiv e Summary Table of content The Report Proper Combination transmittal/ Executive Summary Title Page 4 th step 5 th step The Report Proper Combination transmittal/ Executive Summary Title Page The Report Proper 6 th step Letter Report 7 th step Email Report

Characteristics of Shorter Reports These are the everyday working report – those used for the routine information reporting that is vital to an organization’s communication. The shorter report forms are the most common in business. Their need for introduction and conclusion varies. Little need for introductory information Shorter report s have little need for introductory materials. Some shorter reports need introductory materials. Include as much introductory material as is necessary to prepare the reader for the report.

Predominance of the direct order The shorter reports usually begin directly with conclusion and recommendation. Use the direct order when the conclusion or recommendation will serve as a basis for action. Most short report are personal, direct, and without formal introductions. Although exceptions exist, they provide everyday working information to organizations that is essential to survival. Use the indirect order when you need to take the reader through the analysis.

The direct order gives the main message first. Then it covers introductory materials (if any), findings and analysis, conclusions and recommendations. The indirect order has this sequence : introduction, facts and analysis, conclusions and recommendations.

More personal writing style Personal writing is common in the shorter reports. The reasons are that the shorter reports usually : 1) involve personal relationships, 2) concern a personal investigation, and 3) are routine Writing impersonally : 1 ) when your reader prefers it and 2) when the situations is formal.

Less need for a structured coherence plan For shorter report a structured plan is not needed. By structured coherence plan we mean an arrangement of summarizing, forward looking, and backward looking parts that tie together the report presentation.

FORMS OF SHORTER REPORT The short report Letter Report Email Reports Special Report Forms Staff Report Meeting Minutes Progress Report Audit Report Proposal

The Short Report • The short report consists of title page and report text. • Usually it is in a direct order , beginning with a summary. • The introduction comes next, followed by the findings and analyses, and finally conclusion.

Letter Report • Letter reports are reports in letter form. • Usually they cover short problems. • Typically they are written in personal style. • They may be organized in the indirect order (beginning with a brief introduction) • They may be also be written in the direct order, in which case a subject line gives introductory facts. • Organizations of letter reports are much like those of longer reports. • The letter report ends on a goodwill note.

The Stuff Report One of the most widely used reports in business is the staff report. It follows a fixed organizational plan that leads to a conclusion. One typical staff report has these parts: 1. Identifying information: as the company’s staff reports are written on intercompany communication stationery, the conventional identification information (To, From, Subject, Date) appears at the beginning. 2. Summary : For the busy executive who wants the facts fast, a summary begins the report. Some executive will read no further. Other will want to trace the report content in detail.

3. Objectives ( or the problem) : as do all good problemsolving procedures, the report text logically begins with a clear description of the problem. 4. Facts : Next comes the information gathered in the attempt to solve the problem. 5. Discussion: Analysis of the facts and applications of the facts and analysis to problem follow. ( frequently, the statement of facts and their discussion can be combined. ) 6. Conclusion : From the preceding discussion of facts come the final meanings as they apply to the problem. 7. Recommendations: If the problem’s objectives allows fro it, a course of action may be recommendation on the basis of the conclusions.

The Audit Report It is a statement verifying an account’s inspection of a firm’s financial record s. Short – and – long form audit reports are well known in business. Composition of the long –form audit reports is as varied as the short form is rigid. In fact , a national accounting association, which made an exhaustive study on the subject, found practices to be so varied that it concluded that no typical form exists.

PROPOSAL ORIGINATION The purpose of a proposal is: 1. To inform 2. To persuade Proposal may originate in two ways: 1. As responses to requests for proposals 2. As writer-initiated proposal and

1. As responses to requests for proposals: A response to an request for proposal places the initiative for proposal origination on the person or organization requesting the proposal. The original idea or need or the proposal , as well as the format, is provided in the request. 2. As writer-initiated proposal: Initiating proposal calls for : i) The ability to identify problems, ii) Creativity in developing possible solutions to problems, and iii) The ability to present the problems and solutions in a logical format

PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT Define Problem State Objectives Develop plan of work Draft proposal First review and go-ahead Revise, finalize draft Management review and approval Final artwork /Final typing Proofread final proposal Reproduction and delivery Prepare Document Plan, outline, and design proposal

PROPOSAL CONTENT Preliminaries -A title page - An abstract - A table of contents Introduction Body Appendices

PROPOSAL PRESENTAION • WRITTEN PRESENTATION • ORAL PRESENTATION

Discussion? Effective Writing Skills