PHI 311 Worldviews Life Spring School of Ministry

PHI- 311 Worldviews Life. Spring School of Ministry

Unit 1 - Session 1 What is a Worldview?

What is a Worldview? “Few people have anything approaching an articulate philosophy…Even fewer, I suspect, have a carefully constructed theology. But everyone has a worldview… In fact, it is only the assumption of a worldview…that allows us to think at all. ” James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door

Differing worldview responses to a “STOP” sign � � � � � Christian Theism If stopping fits within God’s will, then I will stop. If not, I will go. Deism Stopping is part of God’s design. I will stop. Naturalism Stopping makes sense in light of natural processes. I will stop. Nihilism Stopping or not stopping has no meaning. Nor does the outcome of the decision. Existentialism I become human when I choose whether or not to stop. Pantheistic Monism Stopping or not stopping is an illusion. I am one with the sign. New Age The sign is a projection of my inner Self. Stopping or not stopping is unreal. Islamic Theism If stopping is Allah’s will, I will stop. If not, I will go. Postmodernism Stop signs are linguistic devices designed to exercise control over others through the oppressive metanarrative of the traffic controllers. Stopping may be a story with meaning for you, but not necessarily for me.

What is a Worldview? “In the simplest terms, a worldview is a set of beliefs about the most important issues in life. ” Ronald Nash, Worldviews in Conflict, 16

What is a Worldview? “A worldview (or vision of life) is a framework or set of fundamental beliefs through which we view the world and our calling and future in it. This vision need not be fully articulated: it may be so internalized that it goes largely unquestioned; it may not be explicitly developed into a systematic conception of life; it may not be theoretically deepened into a philosophy; it may not even be codified into creedal form; it may be greatly refined through cultural-historical development. Nevertheless, this vision is a channel for the ultimate beliefs which give direction and meaning to life. It is the integrative and interpretative framework by which order and disorder are judged; it is the standard by which reality is managed and pursued; it is the set of hinges on which all our everyday thinking and doing turns. ” James H. Olthius, “On Worldviews, ” in Stained Glass: Worldviews and Social Science

What is a Worldview? �James W. Sire’s definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

What is a Worldview? �Breaking down Sire’s definition (20 -22): Worldview as a commitment Expressed in a story or a set of presuppositions Assumptions that may be true, conscious, consistent The foundation on which we live

What is a Worldview? �To sketch the outline of a worldview we can ask eight basic questions: 1. What is prime reality- the really real? 2. What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death?

What is a Worldview? �To sketch the outline of a worldview we can ask eight basic questions: 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview?

What is a Worldview? �List of nine worldviews we’ll survey: 1. Christian Theism 2. Deism 3. Naturalism 4. Nihilism 5. Existentialism 6. Pantheistic Monism 7. New Age 8. Islamic Theism 9. Postmodernism

Pictorial Representation of the Relationship of the Worldviews Eastern Pantheistic Monism Islamic Theism Christian Theism Deism Naturalism Nihilism Post. Existentialism Modernism New Age

What is a Worldview? �Questions to ponder: How would I have defined the term “worldview” before this presentation? How would I define it now? Are there additional questions beyond Sire’s list of eight that I think are vital to understanding someone’s worldview? Could I answer the eight questions in regards to my view of the world? Could I answer the eight questions in regards to the view of a Muslim, a Hindu, a secular humanist?

Unit 1 - Session 2 Why Study Worldviews?

Why Study Worldviews? “For any of us to be fully conscious intellectually we should not only be able to detect the worldviews of others but be aware of our own—why it is ours and why in the light of so many options we think it is true. ” James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door “…achieving awareness of our worldview is one of the most important things we can do to enhance self-understanding, and insight into the worldviews of others is essential to an understanding of what makes them tick. ” Ronald Nash, Worldviews in Conflict

Why Study Worldviews? �Three primary reasons to study worldviews: Aids us in understanding reality- knowledge of the truth Aids us in understanding what we believe and why we believe it- basis for faith Aids us in communicating with others- relational apologetics and evangelism

Why Study Worldviews? �Aids us in understanding reality- knowledge of the truth “All men desire to know the truth, that is, the way reality really is. ” Sire, 76 As Christians we believe that God has revealed what is true through His creation, His written Word and His incarnation. As Christians we believe that a true knowledge and acceptance of reality is necessary to salvation and personal fulfillment.

Why Study Worldviews? �Aids us in understanding what we believe and why we believe it- basis for faith Many people, Christian and otherwise, hold an undefined worldview. Many people, Christian and otherwise, hold an unexamined worldview. Studying worldviews allows us to define and examine our view, the views of others, and oftentimes the view we thought we held, but didn’t. Believing what you believe.

Why Study Worldviews? �Aids us in communicating with others- relational apologetics and evangelism “He who knows only one language knows no language. ” Understanding the internal logic of others’ views…e. g. ethical basis within naturalism Understanding motivation beyond straightforward rejection of God…e. g. hopelessness and Nihilism (Vonnegut)

Why Study Worldviews? �Questions to ponder: How clearly have I defined my own worldview? How closely have I examined my own worldview? How much do I know about the worldviews of others? What can I do to better understand my own worldview and the worldviews of others? What do I hope to gain as a result of this increased understanding? How can this increased understanding benefit others? How can this increased understanding become a part of the kingdom of God being advanced?

Unit 2 - Session 1 Christian Theism

Christian Theism “For there is one God, and one mediator also between God and men, the man Jesus Christ” The Apostle Paul, 1 Timothy 2: 5 (NASB)

Christian Theism �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Christian Theism �Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ Christian = Follower of Christ ▪ Theism = Belief in a god (Greek theos) Background ▪ Christian Theism is the fulfillment of Hebrew religion ▪ Christian Theism is centered on Jesus Christ’s incarnation, life, death, resurrection and coming return ▪ Christian Theism is historically diverse in expression but uniform in orthodox core Focus on conservative evangelical orthodox view

Christian Theism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Christian Theism � In order to describe the Christian Theistic worldview, we’ll ask Christian Theism the eight basic questions: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

Christian Theism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Prime reality is the infinite, personal God revealed in the Holy Scriptures. This God is triune, transcendent and immanent, omniscient, sovereign, and good. ” Sire, 28. ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ God is infinite God is personal God is triune God is transcendent God is omniscient God is sovereign God is good

Christian Theism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “External reality is the cosmos God created ex nihilo to operate with a uniformity of cause and effect in an open system. ” Sire, 31 ▪ Creation ex nihilo ▪ Creation is ordered (not chaotic) and orderly (cause/effect) ▪ Creation is an open system- free moral agency

Christian Theism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings are created in the image of God and thus possess personality, self-transcendence, intelligence, morality, gregariousness and creativity. ” Sire, 32 ▪ In the image of God ▪ ▪ ▪ Personality (unique identity/personhood) Self-transcendence (awareness and control over environment) Intelligence (the capacity for reason and knowledge) Morality (the capacity for recognizing and understanding good and evil) Gregariousness (social/relational capacity for community) Creativity (imagine new things or endow old things with new significance)

Christian Theism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings were created good, but through the Fall the image of God became defaced, though not so ruined as not to be capable of restoration; through the work of Christ, God redeemed humanity and began the process of restoring people to goodness, though any given person may choose to reject that redemption. ” Sire, 39 ▪ ▪ Creation Fall Redemption Glorification

Christian Theism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “For each person death is either the gate to life with God and his people or the gate to eternal separation from the only thing that will ultimately fulfill human aspirations. ” Sire, 41 ▪ Eternal life ▪ Eternal separation from God (i. e. death)

Christian Theism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Human beings can know both the world around them and God himself because God has built into them the capacity to do so and because he takes an active role in communicating with them. ” Sire, 36 ▪ Capacity for knowledge and the imago dei ▪ Revelation: General and Special

Christian Theism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Ethics is transcendent and is based on the character of God as good (holy and loving). ” Sire, 42 ▪ Transcendence of ethics ▪ Character of God as basis of ethics (holiness/love)

Christian Theism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History is linear, a meaningful sequence of events leading to the fulfillment of God’s purposes for humanity. ” Sire, 43 ▪ Linear ▪ Meaningful ▪ Divine Telos

Christian Theism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “Christian theists live to seek first the kingdom of God, that is, to glorify God and enjoy him forever. ” Sire, 44 ▪ Ultimately, Christian theism is about God. ▪ Human enjoyment/fulfillment results from glorifying God. ▪ John Piper, “God is most fully glorified in us when we are most fully satisfied in Him. ” “So the greatness of God is the central tenet of Christian theism. When a person recognizes this and consciously accepts and acts upon it, this central conception is the rock, the transcendent reference point, that gives life meaning and makes the joys and sorrows of daily existence on planet earth significant moments in an unfolding drama in which on expects to participate forever, not always with sorrows but someday with joy alone. ” Sire, 46

Christian Theism �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 2 - Session 2 Evaluating Christian Theism

Evaluating Christian Theism “Since Christian Theism is only one of many competing worldviews, on what grounds can people make a reasoned choice among the systems? Which worldview is most likely to be true? What is the best or most promising way to approach this kind of question? ” Ronald Nash, Worldviews in Conflict

Evaluating Christian Theism �Ronald Nash, Worldviews in Conflict: Choosing Christianity in a World of Ideas, addresses the issue of defending Christian Theism from a philosophical perspective, not a theological perspective. �Some important terminology for philosophy: Metaphysics- the study of first things/principles such as being, knowing and cause Epistemology- theory of knowledge, especially methods and validation Logic- the science of reasoning, proof, thinking and inference Ethics- the study of “oughtness”, morality, distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad

Evaluating Christian Theism � Utilizes the following tests in concert with one another: The Test of Reason The Test of Experience The Test of Practice � Given the subject matter, Nash is not attempting to prove Christianity as true through formal logic (2+2=4). Rather, he is demonstrating the probability of the claims of Christian Theism. Moral certainty can, and often does, result from probability, rather than proof. In other words, we make many moral and meaningful decisions in our lives based on what we believe to probably be true, rather than on what we can/do prove.

Evaluating Christian Theism �The Test of Reason By reason Nash means logic, specifically the test of non- contradiction: ▪ “A, which can be anything whatever, cannot be both B and non-B at the same time in the same sense. ” ▪ Contradiction = error Worldviews with demonstrable contradictions fail the test of reason and should cause us to suspect their veracity. Is reason contrary to Christianity? Is Christianity full of contradictions? Two major so-called “contradictions” within Christianity: ▪ The problem of evil ▪ The incarnation

Evaluating Christian Theism � The Test of Experience “Worldviews should be relevant to what we know about the world and ourselves. ” Nash, 57 The Test of the Outer World ▪ Does our worldview account for evidence from the world around us or does it contradict that evidence? ▪ Are people innately good? Are miracles impossible? Are pain and death nothing but illusions? The Test of the Inner World ▪ Does our worldview account for what we know about ourselves as human beings? ▪ Do I think, experience pain, have hopes, feel guilt? Am I conscious of past, present and future? Are my actions determined or undetermined? ▪ “No matter how hard it may be to look honestly at our inner self, we are right in being suspicious of those whose defense of a worldview ignores or rejects the inner world. ” Nash, 61

Evaluating Christian Theism �The Test of Practice: “…can the person who professes that worldview live consistently in harmony with the system he professes? Or do we find that he is forced to live according to beliefs borrowed from a competing system? ” Nash, 62 Typically, this problem is seen most clearly in epistemological and ethical questions: ▪ How can the skeptic know that we can’t know anything at all? ▪ How can the moral relativist claim that anything is wrong?

Evaluating Christian Theism �Now we will apply the three tests (Reason, Experience, Practice) to the Christian Theistic worldview as presented by Sire. �We will look at each of the eight worldview questions and see if it fails any of the three tests. �We will not take time to do this with the other worldviews, but as we present them we will point out their failings at various points.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Prime reality is the infinite, personal God revealed in the Holy Scriptures. This God is triune, transcendent and immanent, omniscient, sovereign, and good. ” Sire, 28. ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ There is nothing internally contradictory about this claim. ▪ The problem of evil and the incarnation are the best critiques that have been offered, but neither actually produce a contradiction, only difficulties/paradoxes. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Neither the inner nor outer world render such a claim impossible. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ Life can be lived consistently in accord with this belief.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “External reality is the cosmos God created ex nihilo to operate with a uniformity of cause and effect in an open system. ” Sire, 31 ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ There is nothing contradictory in the internal logic of this statement. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Nothing in the inner or outer world of experience render this impossible. Big bang/evolution are the largest critiques and can both be incorporated into this worldview. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ Life can be consistently lived with this understanding of the cosmos.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings are created in the image of God and thus possess personality, self-transcendence, intelligence, morality, gregariousness and creativity…through the Fall the image of God became defaced, though not so ruined as not to be capable of restoration; through the work of Christ, God redeemed humanity and began the process of restoring people to goodness, though any given person may choose to reject that redemption. ” Sire, 32, 39

Evaluating Christian Theism �The Test of Reason There are no inherent contradictions in the internal logic of the statement. �The Test of Experience Both our knowledge of our inner and outer world indicate the existence of moral ambiguity, innate goodness, conscience, evil and redemption. �The Test of Practice A person can live consistently in accordance with this view of humanity.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “For each person death is either the gate to life with God and his people or the gate to eternal separation from the only thing that will ultimately fulfill human aspirations. ” Sire, 41 ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ The statement, while it cannot be proven, is not self-contradictory and is not subject to falsification. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Nothing in the inner or outer world disprove this idea and some evidences seem to support it. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ People can live their lives in accordance with this belief.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Human beings can know both the world around them and God himself because God has built into them the capacity to do so and because he takes an active role in communicating with them. ” Sire, 36 ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ Nothing inherently self-contradicting or illogical. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Our knowledge of ourselves and the world around us indicates a capacity to know, perceive and learn. This capacity does appear to be enhanced in numerous ways when coupled with God’s revelation. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ People can and do live in accordance with this view, resulting in countless advances in philosophy, science, medicine, technology, etc.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Ethics is transcendent and is based on the character of God as good (holy and loving). ” Sire, 42 ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ Nothing inherently self-contradictory here. ▪ Objections typically involve the problem of evil and some of God’s actions in Scripture that do not fit imposed notions of good/evil. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Most people remain convinced, regardless of their worldview, that there is a transcendent component to ethics resulting in universal standards of good and evil. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ A person with this view has no need to borrow from another worldview in addressing ethical questions/situations.

Evaluating Christian Theism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History is linear, a meaningful sequence of events leading to the fulfillment of God’s purposes for humanity. ” Sire, 43 ▪ The Test of Reason ▪ There is nothing self-contradictory in this view. ▪ The Test of Experience ▪ Both inner and outer observation indicate that time is in fact linear and made up of a meaningful sequence of events. Whether this is in fulfillment of God’s purposes cannot be proven or disproven through logic. ▪ Once more, the problem of evil is often cited here to question God’s purposeful oversight of creation. ▪ The Test of Practice ▪ Most humans, regardless of worldview, can and do function with the idea that their life is linear and made up of meaningful events.

Evaluating Christian Theism � Christian Theism passes the tests of Reason, Experience and Practice. � As we continue to survey other worldviews you will note that this is not necessarily a claim that other worldviews can make, even worldviews that claim to be generated by these tests. � You will also note that in the case of Pantheistic Monism and New Age, some worldviews reject these tests altogether. � Ask yourself, could I be satisfied with a view of reality that: 1. 2. 3. failed to be reasonable? failed to agree with my experience of the inner and outer world? was impossible to live in accordance with?

Unit 3 - Session 1 Deism & Naturalism

Deism & Naturalism “Deism is the isthmus between two great continents—theism and naturalism… In theism God is the infinite-personal Creator and sustainer of the cosmos. In deism God is reduced; he begins to lose his personality, though he remains Creator and (by implication) sustainer of the cosmos. In naturalism God is further reduced; he loses his very existence. ” James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door

Deism & Naturalism �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Deism �Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ Deism = Belief in a god (Latin deus) Background history ▪ 18 th & 19 th centuries saw shift from Theism ▪ Rationalism and scientific progress contributed Focus on “Cold” Deism ▪ “Warm” vs. “Cold” Deism ▪ End with comments on popular form of modern warm Deism

Deism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Deism � In order to describe the Postmodern worldview, we’ll ask Postmodernism the eight basic questions: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

Deism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “A transcendent God, as a First Cause, created the universe but then left it to run on its own. God is thus not immanent, not triune, not fully personal, not sovereign over human affairs, not providential. ” Sire, 51 ▪ God is the “prime mover” ▪ The “clockwork God” ▪ God is impersonal, perhaps an intellect, certainly not incarnate and non-revelatory

Deism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “The cosmos God created is determined, because it is created as a uniformity of cause and effect in a closed system; no miracle is possible. ” Sire, 52 ▪ Closed in that God has determined not too act upon His creation. ▪ Closed in that humans are incapable of transcending the divine design in order to modify it.

Deism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings, though personal, are a part of the clockwork of the universe. ” Sire, 52 ▪ Humans have self-consciousness and self-determination, but only in regards to themselves and one another…personal relationship with God is not possible. ▪ Humans have intelligence, morality, and a capacity for community and creativity, but none of this is grounded in God’s character. ▪ Humans are what they are by design, not be virtue of being created in God’s image or relating to Him.

Deism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Human beings may or may not have a life beyond their physical existence. ” Sire, 53. ▪ Afterlife similar to Christian Theism ▪ Alternative visions of afterlife ▪ No afterlife

Deism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Through our innate and autonomous human reason and the methods of science, we can not only know the universe but we can infer at least something of what God is like. The cosmos, this world, is understood to be in its normal state; it is not fallen or abnormal. ” Sire, 54 ▪ Humans function as God created them, including the capacity for understanding and gaining knowledge. ▪ Creation, when studied, can yield some insight into the Creator, as Creator. God is an impersonal designer, not an immanent Person.

Deism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Ethics is intuitive or limited to general revelation; because the universe is normal, it reveals what is right. ” Sire, 56 ▪ Recall that there is no “Fall” in Deism; humanity and all of creation is as God designed it to be. ▪ Thus, the intuition of humanity and the order of creation indicates right vs. wrong, good vs. evil.

Deism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History is linear, for the course of the cosmos was determined at creation. Still the meaning of the events of history remains to be understood by the application of human reason to the data unearthed and made available to historians. ” Sire, 57 ▪ History unfolds according to the design of the cosmos; without divine intervention. ▪ If history has “meaning” it can be discovered through human reason; not revelation.

Deism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “Cold deists use their own autonomous reason to determine their goal in life; warm deists may reflect on their commitment to a somewhat personal God and determine their goal in accordance with what they believe their God would be pleased with. ” Sire, 59. ▪ Deism and “personal freedom”. ▪ Deism and pluralism.

Deism �Moralistic Therapeutic Deism (Christian Smith) 1. “A God exists who created and orders the world and 2. 3. 4. 5. watches over human life on earth. God wants people to be good, nice, and fair to each other, as taught in the Bible and by most religions. The central goal in life is to be happy and to feel good about oneself. God does not need to be particularly involved in one’s life except when God is needed to resolve a problem. Good people go to heaven when they die. ”

Naturalism �Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ Naturalism = Belief in the natural world as ultimate Background ▪ “Deism is the isthmus between two great continents— theism and naturalism…In intellectual terms the route is this: In theism God is the infinite-personal Creator and sustainer of the cosmos. In deism God is reduced; he begins to lose his personality, though he remains Creator and (by implication) sustainer of the cosmos. In naturalism God is further reduced; he loses his very existence. ” Sire, 67

Naturalism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Naturalism � In order to describe the Naturalist worldview, we’ll ask Naturalism the eight basic questions: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

Naturalism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Prime reality is matter. Matter exists eternally and is all there is. God does not exist. ” Sire, 68 ▪ Carl Sagan, “The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be. ” ▪ Matter, in one form or another, has always existed and is all that has ever existed. ▪ Recently some naturalist scientists have proposed that matter originated at some point in the past from nothing.

Naturalism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “The cosmos exists as a uniformity of cause and effect in a closed system. ” Sire, 70 ▪ Deterministic, but not designed. ▪ “…the occurrence of events, qualities and processes, and the characteristic behaviors of various individuals, are contingent on the organization of spatiotemporally located bodies, whose internal structures and external relations determine and limit the appearance and disappearance of everything that happens. ” Ernest Nagel, as quoted in Sire, 71

Naturalism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings are complex ‘machines’; personality is an interrelation of chemical and physical properties we do not yet fully understand. ” Sire, 71 ▪ Descarte’s “mind and machine” is reduced to mind as a function of machine. “the brain secretes thought as the liver secretes bile. ” Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis, quoted in Sire, 72. ▪ No transcendence beyond matter…which is all there is, ever was or ever will be. ▪ Humans are unique from other composite matter because of intelligence, speech, culture, etc. Thus, humanity has “value” as humanity vs. other matter. ▪ Determinism is not considered absolute by some naturalists…humans can act other than they do, thus providing a basis for naturalist ethics.

Naturalism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Death is extinction of personality and individuality. ” Sire, 74 ▪ “Human destiny is an episode between two oblivions. ” Ernest Nagel, quoted in Sire, 75 ▪ When matter breaks down, the individual comprised of that matter breaks down.

Naturalism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Through our innate and autonomous human reason, including the methods of science, we can know the universe. The cosmos, including this world, is understood to be in its normal state. ” Sire, 75 ▪ Human reason is the result of unguided evolutionary processes. ▪ Knowledge comes through human experience, experimentation, examination and empirical evidence. ▪ Humanity and creation are not “fallen”, but are functioning as they naturally should.

Naturalism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Ethics is related only to human beings. ” Sire, 76 ▪ “…values are constructed by human beings. ” Sire, 77 ▪ Consciousness and self-determination alone result in ethics. Thus, ethics arose through evolution with the appearance of conscious and self-determining humans. ▪ No “natural law”. ▪ Ethical systems arise as individual humans interact within human groups in pursuit of human survival.

Naturalism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History is a linear system of events linked by cause and effect but without an overarching purpose. ” Sire, 80 ▪ “Natural” history pre-dates, and will almost certainly postdate, “human” history. ▪ Natural history began with a “big bang” or “sudden emergence”. The origin of natural history is in dispute, but naturalists agree that it was self-activating. ▪ The origin of human history is understood to be evolutionary processes. However, humans represent a new phase in evolution because of self-consciousness. Thus, human history is meaningful in a way natural history is not; participants in the history are aware of it.

Naturalism Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? � “Naturalism itself implies no particular core commitment on the part of any given naturalist. Rather core commitments are adopted unwittingly or chosen by individuals. ” Sire, 84 ▪ Returns to questions of determinism and ethics. ▪ Many naturalists would self identify as “secular humanists” ▪ Secular = no supernatural/divine ▪ Humanism = “…the overall attitude that human beings are of special value; their aspirations, their thoughts, their yearnings are significant. ” Sire, 85

Deism & Naturalism �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 3 - Session 2 Nihilism & Existentialism

Nihilism & Existentialism “…nihilism is the negation of everything—knowledge, ethics, beauty, reality. In nihilism no statement has validity; nothing has meaning. ” James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door “…there is at least one being in whom existence precedes essence, a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept, and…this being is man. First of all, man exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and, only afterwards, defines himself. ” Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism

Nihilism & Existentialism �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Nihilism �Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ Nihilism = belief in nothing/negation Background ▪ Nihilism arises as the logical conclusion of Naturalism. ▪ While Naturalists persist without moving to Nihilism, most Nihilists are former Naturalists. ▪ Nihilism is alive and well, but likely had its heyday in the middle of the previous century.

Nihilism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Nihilism �“Nihilism is more a feeling than a philosophy, more a solitary stance before the universe than a worldview. Strictly speaking, nihilism is a denial of any philosophy or worldview—a denial of the possibility of knowledge, a denial that anything is valuable. If it proceeds to the absolute denial of everything, it even denies the reality of existence itself. In other words, nihilism is the negation of everything—knowledge, ethics, beauty, reality. In nihilism no statement has validity; nothing has meaning. Everything is gratuitous, de trop, that is, just there. ” Sire, 94

Nihilism � In order to describe the Nihilist worldview, we can’t ask the eight basic questions of a worldview: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

Nihilism �Instead, we’ll simply look at the way in which Naturalism, when taken seriously, logically leads to Nihilism. Not all Naturalists inevitably move to Nihilism. However, Naturalism forms the foundation for Nihilism, particularly as a bridge from Theism/Deism to Nihilism. �Nihilism has emerged, in part, because of Deistic and Theistic arguments against Naturalism. Rather than reject the internal inconsistencies of Naturalism in favor of a different worldview, Nihilists embrace these inconsistencies in favor of denying worldviews altogether. �Let’s observe the move from Naturalism to Nihilism.

Nihilism �Necessity & Chance Nihilism takes the deterministic nature of human action seriously. Say goodbye to free will. ▪ Humans are nothing but machines responding to stimuli over which they have no control. “A person does not act on the world, the world acts on him. ” B. F. Skinner, as quoted in Sire, 100. ▪ There is no such thing as “free will” or responsibility; our actions are nothing more than the inevitable outcome of our genetic and environmental make-up. Nihilism takes the implications of evolutionary processes driven by chance seriously. Say goodbye to meaning. ▪ Humans exist in a closed system of cause and effect driven by mere chance. ▪ There can be no purpose or meaning of any kind when things occur only as they must and only through the absurdity of chance.

Nihilism �Metaphysics and Epistemology If matter is all that exists, then there can be no confidence in the capacity for matter to accurately perceive matter. ▪ “The horrid doubt always arises whether the convictions of man’s mind, which has developed from the mind of the lower animals, are of any value or at all trustworthy. Would anyone trust the conviction of a monkey’s mind, if there any convictions in such a mind? ” Charles Darwin, as quoted in Sire, 103 -4. ▪ “It is only when you are asked to believe in Reason coming from non-reason that you must cry Halt, for, if you don’t, all thought is discredited. ” C. S. Lewis, Miracles, 32. If humans are inside a box and the box is all there is, then how can they know with any certainty that they are inside a box?

Nihilism �The death of ethics Ethics is a statement of what “ought” to be; despite what “is”. In Naturalism, there is no universal ought; ethics are simply social constructs of groups of humans. Nihilists recognize that this is not truly ethics, because it no longer describes what “ought” to be versus what “is”, it simply describes what “is” in various social contexts. Nihilism recognizes that in a closed natural system there is no basis for ethics; nothing is right, nothing is wrong, nothing is good, nothing is evil…these are terms without meaning.

Nihilism �An existence without meaning Nihilism recognizes the logical conclusion of naturalism: ▪ There is no “free will” or responsibility for human action ▪ There can be no confidence in human thought ▪ There is no such thing as ethics in the sense of “oughtness” In short, Nihilism denies the existence of philosophy (metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics). In doing so, Nihilism envisions an existence without the possibility of meaning.

Nihilism � The difficulty of living as a Nihilist: 1. From meaninglessness follows nothing…or anything. No 2. 3. 4. 5. action or inaction could be considered appropriate or inappropriate. Thought, and particularly trust of thought, is inconsistent and absurd. Nihilism is a negation of something one claims does not exist. Nihilists have attempted to use art to convey the meaning of their non-worldview…but insofar as art conveys meaning it undermines the essential claim of Nihilism, there is no meaning. Nihilism poses severe psychological problems for the Nihilist. A life lived without meaning in negation of value, significance, dignity, worth, etc. is by definition miserable and pointless.

Existentialism �Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ Exist = to be present in time and space ▪ Existentialism = the belief that human existence is primary, essence is secondary Background ▪ Existentialism as a response to Nihilism, seeks to “transcend” Nihilism ▪ Emerged in distinct forms in the 19 th century (atheistic Existentialism in response to Nihilism and theistic Existentialism in response to dead orthodoxy), but did not become a widely held worldview until the second half of the 20 th century. ▪ We will focus on the “mainstream” of atheistic Existentialism as expressed by Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Existentialism � In order to describe the Existentialist worldview, we’ll ask Existentialism the eight basic questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. � � What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? What is a human being? What happens to a person at death? Why is it possible to know anything at all? How do we know what is right and wrong? What is the meaning of human history? What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? Existentialism is essentially Naturalism with an attempt to reclaim human meaning from the depths of Nihilism. Thus, Existentialism answers questions 1, 4, 5, 6, & 7 essentially the same as Naturalism. We will review these only briefly, and focus on 2, 3 & 8.

Existentialism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Matter exists eternally; God does not exist. ” Sire, 119 ▪ Carl Sagan, “The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be. ” ▪ Matter, in one form or another, has always existed and is all that has ever existed. ▪ Recently some naturalist scientists have proposed that matter originated at some point in the past from nothing

Existentialism � Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “The cosmos is composed solely of matter, but to human beings reality appears in two forms—subjective and objective. ” Sire, 119 ▪ The “objective” world is the world of objects, things, mechanisms, all that which is “it”. Essentially, all that which is non-human. ▪ The “subjective” world is the world only experienced by the human who has evolved to a place of self-consciousness and self-determination. ▪ Science and logic have access to the objective, but not the subjective world. ▪ The subjective world is only accessible through human experience. ▪ Humans live as strangers in an objective world because they are subjective creatures. Both the organization and the chaos of existence are problematic for the human because they are objective and impervious to the subjective will of the human.

Existentialism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings are complex ‘machines’; personality is an interrelation of chemical and physical properties we do not yet fully understand. For human beings alone existence precedes essence; people make themselves who they are. ” Sire, 121 ▪ “…there is at least one being in whom existence precedes essence, a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept, and…this being is man. First of all, man exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and, only afterwards, defines himself. ” Jean-Paul Sartre, quoted in Sire, 121 ▪ “Salt is salt; trees are tree; ants are ant. Only human beings are not human before they make themselves so. ” Sire, 121 ▪ Humans are defined by their experiential existence and actions.

Existentialism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Each person is totally free as regards his or her nature and destiny. ” Sire, 122 ▪ The human capacity for subjective experience gives them infinite potential and freedom to act as they will; for their existence precedes, and determines, their essence. ▪ “We can think, will, imagine, dream, project visions, consider, ponder, invent. Each of us is king of our own subjective world. ” Sire, 122.

Existentialism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Death is extinction of personality and individuality. ” Sire, 119 ▪ When matter breaks down, the individual comprised of that matter breaks down. ▪ Death is the greatest absurdity and most difficult, if not impossible, reality to transcend for the Existentialist. In death, the subjective being becomes objective matter. “So, says Camus, we must ever live in the face of the absurd. ” Sire, 123

Existentialism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Through our innate and autonomous human reason, including the methods of science, we can know the universe. The cosmos, including this world, is understood to be in its normal state. In full recognition of and against the absurdity of the objective world, the authentic person must revolt and create value. ” Sire, 119 -123 ▪ Human reason is the result of unguided evolutionary processes. ▪ However, human reason moves the human beyond the absurd objective world of laws, boundaries, restrictions and inevitability (i. e. determinism) into a transcendent place where they can and must experience the subjective in the face of the objective.

Existentialism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Ethics is related only to human beings. The good action is the consciously chosen action. ” Sire, 119 -124 ▪ “To choose to be this or that is to affirm at the same time the value of what we choose, because we can never choose evil. We always choose the good. ” Sartre, as quoted in Sire, 124. ▪ So is there a standard for “good” other than conscious choices? Yes, the conscious choices of others provide an ethical center of subjectivity whereby we ascertain whether our good choices are good for humanity. ▪ But how to deal with competing notions of what is good for humanity? Existentialism falls short of answering this query.

Existentialism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History is a linear system of events linked by cause and effect but without an overarching purpose. ” Sire, 80 ▪ The origin of human history is understood to be evolutionary processes. However, humans represent a new phase in evolution because of self-consciousness. Thus, human history is meaningful in a way natural history is not; participants in the history are aware of it. ▪ Human history can have meaning insomuch as self-conscious and self-determined humans make choices that define their existence individually and corporately.

Existentialism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “The core commitment of every full-blown atheistic existentialist is to himself or herself. ” Sire, 126 ▪ “Since they themselves make themselves who they are, they are responsible only to themselves. They admit they are finite beings in an absurd world, subject to death without exception. The authenticity of their value comes solely by virtue of their own conscious choices. ” Sire, 126 ▪ Albert Camus attempted to portray a “saint without God” in his story The Plague, but ultimately one is left asking, “Why are the actions of this ‘saint’ preferable to the actions of other characters in the story? ” In rejecting any objective standard of truth, Existentialism can only offer a subjective answer to this question.

Nihilism & Existentialism �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 4 - Session 1 Pantheistic Monism & New Age

Pantheistic Monism & New Age “Atman is Brahman. ” Hindu confession of faith “Know that you are God; know that you are the universe. ” Shirley Mac. Laine, Dancing in the Light

Pantheistic Monism & New Age � Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Season 6, Episode 4 Otto, a “shape-shifter” has been separated from his species his whole life and never experienced their shared being as a single entity (the “Link”). He meets another shape-shifter and temporarily “links” with her by becoming the same substance. This “link” brings understanding/unity beyond thoughts and words, and gives him insight into what the great “Link” might be like. In one scene he is speaking with the other shape-shifter about the experience of merging with all other shape-shifters in the “Link”. Let’s take a look at their conversation as it will prepare us to understand the basic concept underlying both Pantheistic Monism and New Age.

Pantheistic Monism & New Age Otto- “You haven’t told me your name. ” Shifter- “What use would I have for a name. ” Otto- “To differentiate yourself from the others. ” Shifter- “I don’t. ” Otto- “But, you are a separate being aren’t you? ” Shifter- “In a sense. ” Otto- “When you return to the Link, what will become of the entity I’m talking to right now? ” Shifter- “The drop becomes the ocean. ” Otto- “And if you choose to take solid form again? ” Shifter- “The ocean becomes a drop. ” Otto- “Ah, yes, I think I’m beginning to understand. ” Shifter- “Then you can answer your own question, ‘How many of us are there? ’” Otto- “One…and many, it depends on how you look at it. ” Shifter- “Very good, you are beginning to understand. But there is so much you don’t know. ” Otto- “Tell me. ” Shifter- “Oh, words are insufficient. Link with me again, it is the only way I can give you the understanding you seek. ”

Pantheistic Monism & New Age �Watch for these ideas to come to the fore: Lack of differentiation The relationship between the ocean and the drop The paradox between one and many The inability of words and thought to give full access to the Link. The need for “link” experience to gain understanding.

Pantheistic Monism & New Age �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Pantheistic Monism � Opening remarks…Journeying East Defining terms ▪ Pan = All, Theos = God, Monism = One Background ▪ The influence of Eastern religion on the Western world has been increasing over the past 150 years. ▪ The 1960’s marked a significant turning point as a disillusioned generation sought an escape from traditional Western religion and the Western philosophies that sought (unsuccessfully) to reject it. ▪ Fifty years later, “Eastern” thought is pervasive and influential in Western society. Focus will be on the form of Eastern philosophy that is most popular in the West. It is the root worldview that underlies much of Hindu religion. “Pantheistic monism is distinguished from other related Eastern worldviews by its monism, the notion that only one impersonal element constitutes reality. ” Sire, 147

Pantheistic Monism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Pantheistic Monism � In order to describe the Pantheistic Monist worldview, we’ll ask Pantheistic Monism the eight basic questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? What is a human being? What happens to a person at death? Why is it possible to know anything at all? How do we know what is right and wrong? What is the meaning of human history? What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? However, we need to understand that Eastern and Western thinking are radically different. It is not simply that the Eastern worldview has different categories, meaning or content, but that the Eastern worldview often rejects categories, meaning and content. � Example: Law of non-contradiction vs. refusal to differentiate

Pantheistic Monism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Atman is Brahman; that is, the soul of each and every human being is the Soul of the cosmos (ultimate reality). ” Sire, 149 Atman = the essence/soul of any person Brahman = the essence/Soul of the whole cosmos Each person is, in essence, God is understood as the “one, infinite-impersonal, ultimate reality. That is, God is the cosmos. God is all that exists; nothing exists that is not God. ” Sire, 149 ▪ Things that exist that appear not to be God, including all distinctions are “maya”, i. e. “illusion”. ▪ ▪

Pantheistic Monism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? The nature of reality is Brahman. All is one; all is united. Atman is Brahman. ▪ Nevertheless, “Some things are more one than others. ” Sire, 150. The distinction appears to be a matter of consciousness. Self-realization makes one experientially aware of their Oneness with ultimate reality. ▪ Experientially, a fully-realized human is more one than a rock. However, a fully-realized human loses all consciousness when it achieves oneness. ▪ Distinctions between those that are more or less one than others are ultimately “maya”.

Pantheistic Monism �Question 3: What is a human being? On one hand, a human being is an individual embodiment of Atman. On the other hand, an “individual, personal” human being is a category that suggests separateness in a reality of Oneness. Ultimately, there are no “individual, personal” human beings, as such, there is only the cosmos; there is only Brahman. ▪ “To realize one’s oneness with the cosmos is to pass beyond personality. ” Sire, 154 ▪ Humans might be described as those who are moving toward being through inaction and awareness of Oneness.

Pantheistic Monism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Death is the end of individual, personal existence, but it changes nothing essential in an individual’s nature. ” Sire, 158 ▪ All that dies in death is one individual embodiment of Atman. ▪ Atman is eternal and is embodied in billions of other ways eternally. ▪ Reincarnation/transmigration of the soul is understood in impersonal, ultimate ways, not individual or personal ways. ▪ When Joe dies, it is not Joe in the personal/individual sense that comes back to life as a tiger. When Joe dies, Atman lives on and embodies a tiger. The tiger will die, but Atman lives on and embodies a tree. Atman embodies/incarnates all things…Atman is Brahman.

Pantheistic Monism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “To realize one’s oneness with the cosmos is to pass beyond knowledge. The principle of noncontradiction does not apply where ultimate reality is concerned. ” Sire, 155 ▪ Knowledge, as understood in Western terms, can all be summed up in one word…”maya”. ▪ Realization of Oneness comes through Realization, not Knowledge. In that Realization, knowledge has no meaning, for knowledge distinguishes.

Pantheistic Monism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “To realize one’s oneness with the cosmos is to pass beyond good and evil; the cosmos is perfect at every moment. ” Sire, 156 ▪ “Brahman is beyond good and evil. ” Sire, 157 ▪ Good and evil are categories of “maya”. ▪ Karma is a system of balancing this illusion of good and evil throughout the progress of the transmigrating soul back to the One. This ongoing cycle is indefinite, during which, the individual incarnations of Atman may perceive right and wrong as meaningful categories, but upon moksha, good and evil cease to have meaning. ▪ The cosmos is perfect because the cosmos is Ultimate.

Pantheistic Monism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “To realize one’s oneness with the One is to pass beyond time. Time is unreal. History is cyclical. ” ▪ Consider a river vs. the water cycle. Time is an illusion, like describing water as that which passes by a given point on the river bank. In reality, there is no time, there is only the eternal flow and cycle of existence, the eternal One. Consider the sharpness of contrast here between Eastern thought and Christian theism.

Pantheistic Monism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “Core commitments among individual Eastern pantheistic monists may vary widely, but one consistent commitment is, by the elimination of desire, to achieve salvation, that is, to realize one’s union with the One. ” Sire, 163 ▪ The problem humans face is the illusory sense of separation/distinction from the One. ▪ This illusion results in the desire of things other than Oneness, resulting in suffering. ▪ By eliminating desire for anything other than Oneness, suffering is eliminated and realization of Oneness is made possible. ▪ “Many (if not all) roads lead to the One. ” Sire, 151

New Age � Opening remarks Defining terms ▪ New – While routed in animism and ancient Gnosis, the New Age understands itself to be new and novel in that it represents a new stage of evolution. ▪ Age – The newness of the age is predicated on the new being that humans are becoming through evolution into new consciousness. Background ▪ New Age, as a syncretism of animism, existentialism and Eastern thought has a long and complex history. ▪ It has emerged since the 1960 s as an increasingly popular and pervasive view, now commanding entire sections of most bookstores and influencing many who are unaware of its teachings. ▪ Oprah Winfrey and Deepak Chopra are probably the two most influential popular proponents today, although past generations were influenced heavily by Shirley Mac. Laine, Aldous Huxley and John Lilly.

New Age � In order to describe the New Age worldview, we’ll ask New Age the eight basic questions: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

New Age �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “Whatever the nature of being (idea or matter, energy or particle), the self is the kingpin, the prime reality. ” Sire, 181 ▪ Humans are in an ongoing evolutionary process in which major changes are occurring at the level of consciousness. ▪ A new age/consciousness/humanity is emerging, thus the emerging “self” is primary.

New Age �Three options for New Age adherents: The Occult Version ▪ A “fifth dimension” spirit-world truly exists alongside normally perceived reality. Altered consciousness opens “doors of perception” to this supernatural reality. The Psychedelic Version ▪ Altered states of consciousness are simply projections of the self; humans can create alternative realities from within themselves. Conceptual Relativism ▪ “…altered states of consciousness allow people to substitute one symbol system for another symbol system, that is, one vision of reality for another. ” Sire, 201 ▪ We have no direct access to reality, only various ways of perceiving it. New age is an alternative to other ways. The “best” way is the one that yields beneficial results.

New Age �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “The cosmos, while unified in the self, is manifested in two more dimensions: the visible universe, accessible through ordinary consciousness, and the invisible universe (or Mind at Large), accessible through altered states of consciousness. ” Sire, 186 ▪ Similar to Naturalism in accepting the reality, orderliness and cause/effect nature of the natural world. ▪ Similar to Pantheistic Monism in recognizing the individual self as one with the Mind at Large.

New Age- Reality & The Self Mind at Large Natural World Self

New Age �Question 3: What is a human being? A human being is an incarnation of the self. The self is one with the Mind at Large, but most human beings do not realize their true nature. “As human beings grow in their awareness and grasp of this fact, the human race is on the verge of a radical change in human nature; even now we see harbingers of transformed humanity and prototypes of the New Age. ” Sire, 181 ▪ Human beings who do not recognize their oneness with the Mind at Large have the potential to do so. ▪ Human beings who realize oneness with the Mind at Large recognize their identity as god, with the power to create anything they can imagine (Sire quote from Mac. Laine, 185).

New Age �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Physical death is not the end of the self; under the experience of cosmic consciousness, the fear of death is removed. ” Sire, 195 ▪ Death is simply a transition from one form of life to another. ▪ The “higher consciousness”, i. e. the self, cannot die. ▪ New Age proponents point to “past-life regressions”, reincarnation, out-of-body experiences (particularly near physical death) as evidence of existence beyond the body.

New Age �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “The core experience of the New Age is cosmic consciousness, in which ordinary categories of space, time and morality tend to disappear. ” Sire, 190 ▪ The natural world is accessed through the typical consciousness of the self and understood in typical categories of space, time, ethics, etc. ▪ The Mind at Large is accessed through “doors of perception” such as drugs, meditation, trance, biofeedback, acupuncture, ritualized dance, music, etc. Here, anything can happen because reality is created by the self, “anything the self sees, perceives, conceives, imagines or believes, exists…Appearance is reality. There is no illusion. ” Sire, 191 ▪ See quote in Sire, 192 -193

New Age �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Human beings can understand reality because in a state of God-consciousness they directly perceive it. Nonetheless, when New Age teachers present this view to others, they often cite the authority of ancient Scriptures and other religious teachers. ” Sire, 204 ▪ We are all god, we just don’t all realize it. ▪ Those who become one with the One have not only direct access to knowledge, they create knowledge. ▪ Those who have not realized their oneness require teaching, guidance, etc. in order to reach self-realization. ▪ The “wise” of other religions are enlisted to teach the “truths” of the New Age, particularly Jesus and Buddha.

New Age �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “The core experience of the New Age is cosmic consciousness, in which ordinary categories of space, time and morality tend to disappear. ” Sire, 190 ▪ In our perception of the natural world, humans choose from any number of ethical systems. Some New Age proponents claim that some form of ethics remain even in cosmic consciousness. ▪ In embracing oneness with the Mind at Large or “cosmic consciousness”, ethics lose all meaning in theory. ▪ One ethic does appear to remain…it is “better” to be one with Oneness than not to be.

New Age � Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “History as a record of events that actually occurred in the past is of little interest, but cosmic history which ends with the deification of humanity, especially the individual human self, is seen as a great vision and a great hope. ” Sire, 207 ▪ Events in the historical record mean little, while the experience/consciousness of those events by those who experienced them is of interest. ▪ “Cosmic formation—big bang, galactic and planetary formation, the formation of the earth…emergence of organic life, its evolution into humanity’s present state, its teetering on the edge of a transition to cosmic consciousness…[and the eventual] arrival of the New Man, the New Woman and the universal New idyllic Age” is considered of paramount importance. Sire, 207

New Age � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “New Agers are committed to realizing their own individual unity with the cosmos, creating and recreating it in their own image. ” Sire, 207 ▪ New Agers take varying paths to achieving higher consciousness. ▪ Since all experience is simply perception of the reality created by the self, the behavior of New Agers is not entirely predictable. Some attend Christian churches, others consult mediums, others practice alternative medicine, while others mediate in Buddhist monasteries. Some do all of these things while others do none.

Pantheistic Monism & New Age �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 4 - Session 2 Islamic Theism

Islamic Theism “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the Prophet of God. ” Muslim confession of faith

Islamic Theism �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from “A View From the Middle East: Islamic Theism” by Winfried Corduan in James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Islamic Theism �Opening remarks Background ▪ Islam arose in the late sixth century through theological/philosophical teaching and political/military reforms of Muhammad, the “Seal of the Prophets”. ▪ Muhammad was the final prophet, and the one through whom complete revelation came ▪ Today some 1/6 th of the world’s population practice some form of Islam. ▪ Islam has become particularly relevant in recent times because of its pervasive presence in Western countries and because of military/political concerns throughout the world. Will focus on mainstream conservative form of Islam

Islamic Theism �Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20

Islamic Theism � In order to describe the Islamic Theistic worldview, we’ll ask Islamic Theism the eight basic questions: What is prime reality- the really real? What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? 3. What is a human being? 4. What happens to a person at death? 5. Why is it possible to know anything at all? 6. How do we know what is right and wrong? 7. What is the meaning of human history? 8. What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? 1. 2.

Islamic Theism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “The fundamental reality of Islam is God (Allah), described as monotheistic, infinite, personal, transcendent, immanent, omniscient, sovereign and good. ” Corduan, 246. ▪ Oneness ▪ Allahu akbar = “God is greater than all others” or “God is the one and only supreme being. ” ▪ Transcendence ▪ Emphasized over immanence. Incarnation/indwelling would be unthinkable, would amount to cardinal sin of shirk (lit. idolatry). ▪ We can know Allah’s attributes, but not Allah in any direct sense. ▪ A “personal” relationship with Allah, in the Christian sense, is blasphemy. ▪ Immanent in the Qur’an? See Denny quote on 254 ▪ Sovereignty ▪ Despite His transcendence, Allah rules over the created universe.

Islamic Theism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “God (Allah) created the universe ex nihilo, and all creatures are responsible to him. However, the world is a closed system insofar as nothing happens in the world outside of his divine decrees. ” Corduan, 254. ▪ Ex nihilo. Allah says “Be” and it is. ▪ Doctrine of “Qadr”, literally “power”. See Murad quote, 256 -7.

Islamic Theism �Question 3: What is a human being? “Human beings are the pinnacle of God’s [Allah’s] creation. They have been given abilities of which other creatures, such as angels and jinn, are not capable. However, their high standing also brings with it the responsibility to live up to God’s standards. ” Corduan, 257. ▪ Humanity was created as superior to angels. ▪ An angel named Iblis refused to bow to Adam and was cast out as a rebel, becoming Shaytan. ▪ Shaytan successfully tempted Adam into disobedience to God, but Adam was restored to fellowship with God through repentance and obedience. ▪ Humans are born pure, capable of faithfully obeying Allah, and expected to actualize their faith through obedience.

Islamic Theism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? “Death is a time of transition between this life and our eternal state, which will consist of either paradise or hell. ” Corduan, 260. ▪ Soul sleep or purgatory? ▪ Final judgment unto either hell (desert oasis with poisonous water) or Paradise (desert oasis with every sensual pleasure). ▪ Judgment is based on having good works that outweigh evil works for all but martyrs, pre-pubescent children and the mentally ill.

Islamic Theism � Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “Allah has endowed human beings with the capability of knowledge by means of reason and the senses. Thereby, they can also know God’s revelation. However, God’s sovereign decrees limit human knowledge. ” Corduan, 262 -3. ▪ Humans can understand accept truth through reason and senses. ▪ Allah has revealed truth through Prophets to provide the content of Islamic belief. In order of importance, the prophets are Muhammad, Abraham, Jesus (virgin born and capable of working miracles, but neither divine nor crucified) followed by numerous OT and extrabiblical characters. ▪ Prophets provided accurate accounts of truth, but unbelievers rejected and corrupted their testimony, accounting for falsehoods in OT and NT accounts. ▪ Knowledge is ultimately limited by the will of Allah who wills for some to become believers and others to reject truth.

Islamic Theism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “Right and wrong are based on the teachings of the Qur’an, as amplified by the Hadith and interpreted by the schools of law, the shari’a. ” ▪ It is not the role of humans to ask “why? ” Rather, it is their duty to simply obey what Allah commands. ▪ Hadith and shari’a are interpretations and applications of the Qur’an. ▪ Muslim life is strictly regulated and based on the five pillars.

Islamic Theism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? The Five Pillars of Islam 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Reciting the confession, “There is no God but Allah” Prayer five times a day Fast during the month of Ramadan Give annual contribution for the poor Make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once Three categories of action ▪ Fard- those things directly commanded ▪ Halal- those things that are permitted ▪ Haram- those things that are forbidden

Islamic Theism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “Human history has significance in demonstrating the absolute sovereignty of God but, even more so, as the opportunity for people to demonstrate their submission to him. ” Corduan, 269. ▪ Individual submission through obedience ▪ Corporate submission through the development of Ummat, the community of Islam as the geo-political power ▪ Final judgment follows immediately upon the end of time, a topic about which Muslims do not universally agree

Islamic Theism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “A devout Muslim is grateful to Allah for providing the opportunity to serve him and will strive to follow the divine instructions in even the smallest part of life. ” Corduan, 271 ▪ Life is an ongoing test that must be passed if Paradise is to be achieved. Nevertheless, acceptance into Paradise depends upon Allah’s decree…the purest obedience does not ensure entry. ▪ Gratitude and hope are held in tension with constant devotion and uncertainty about one’s destiny.

Islamic Theism �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 5 - Session 1 Postmodernism

Postmodernism “The picture of the universe shifts from tongue to tongue. ” Benjamin Whorf, Language, Thought and Reality, 57. “Those who hang on to their metanarrative as if it really were the master story, encompassing or explaining all other stories, are under an illusion. We can have meaning, for all these stories are more or less meaningful, but we cannot have truth. ” James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door, 223

Postmodernism �Opening questions: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview? This presentation is adapted almost entirely from James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Postmodernism � Community, Season 2, Episode 11 - Abed Nadir (a Muslim character) is in search of the true meaning of Christmas. � Climaxes with cast singing a song in which the meaning of Christmas is described variously by a Christian, Jehovah’s Witness, Jew, Buddhist/hedonist, New Ager, existentialist: “A time to sing” A “Hanukkah thing” “The Birth of Jesus Christ” A time to remember that it’s “good to be nice” “Music, cookies, liquor, and trees” “Video games for two straight weeks” “Hanging out with the people you love, saying I love you” � “The meaning of Christmas is, the idea that Christmas has meaning. And it can mean whatever we want. ” Abed Nadir

Postmodernism � Opening remarks Definition ▪ Post = after ▪ Modernism = The period of history/method of thought dominated by the movement from Deism-Naturalism-Nihilism-Existentialism (i. e. Science/Reason) Background ▪ Used in the 1930 s in regards to art/architecture. ▪ Emerged as a player in cultural analysis in the 1970 s after being used by Jean-Francois Lyotard to mean “incredulity toward metanarratives”. Is Postmodernism a worldview? ▪ However else it can be described, perhaps the best description of Postmodernism is that it defies definition. ▪ The difficulty with the eight basic questions…

Postmodernism 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. What is prime reality- the really real? No direct access if it exists What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? No direct access if it exists What is a human being? No direct access What happens to a person at death? No direct access Why is it possible to know anything at all? Not possible How do we know what is right and wrong? Not possible What is the meaning of human history? Unknown, constantly evolving What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? Unstipulated, varies radically

Postmodernism � Remembering the definition of a worldview: “A worldview is a commitment, a fundamental orientation of the heart, that can be expressed as a story or in a set of presuppositions (assumptions which may be true, partially true or entirely false) that we hold (consciously or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the basic constitution of reality, and that provides the foundation on which we live and move and have our being. ” Sire, 20 � According to postmodernism all such worldviews (i. e. metanarratives) are linguistic fabrications. � Isn’t such a claim the most significant and oppressive metanarrative of all? “The rejection of all metanarratives is itself a metanarrative…there is no way to get around this except to ignore the self-contradiction and get on with the show, which is what postmodernism does. ” Sire, 239

Postmodernism �Question 1: What is prime reality- the really real? “The truth about reality itself is forever hidden from us. All we can do is tell stories” Sire, 222 ▪ We do not have access to reality. ▪ All that we consider to be “prime reality” is simply the product of narratives we have accepted as true. ▪ Ontology is replaced with “meaning” divorced from “reality”.

Postmodernism �Question 2: What is the nature of external reality, that is, the world around us? “The truth about reality itself is forever hidden from us. All we can do is tell stories. ” Sire, 222 ▪ “The world does not speak. Only we do. The world can, once we have programmed ourselves with a language, cause us to hold beliefs. But it cannot propose a language for us to speak. Only other human beings can do that…Languages are made rather than found, and…truth is a property of linguistic entities, of sentences. ” Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony and Solidarity, 6 -7

Postmodernism � Question 3: What is a human being? “Stories give communities their cohesive character…There is no substantial human self. Human beings make themselves who they are by the languages they construct about themselves. ” Sire, 225 -6 ▪ The question itself cannot be answered, but humanity functions and relates according to the metanarratives they accept. ▪ Humans function as they understand themselves to be within their unique communities. Shared stories tell humans how to act, interact and perceive themselves. ▪ “We are only what we describe ourselves to be. ” Sire, 226 ▪ “Focault claims that we are now realizing that ‘humanity’ is nothing more than a fiction composed by the modern human sciences…The self is no longer viewed as the ultimate source and ground for language; to the contrary, we are now coming to see that the self is constituted in and through language. ” Grenz, Primer on Postmodernism, 130.

Postmodernism �Question 4: What happens to a person at death? We cannot know the answer to this question; our response will simply represent the narratives we have accepted. ▪ Postmoderns may believe in any number of stories related to death and afterlife. ▪ None of the stories possess a truth of correspondence to reality; rather they carry meaning for those who tell them.

Postmodernism �Question 5: How can we know anything at all? “The truth about the reality itself is forever hidden from us. All we can do is tell stories…All narratives mask a play for power. Any one narrative used as a metanarrative is oppressive. ” Sire, 222, 225 ▪ “So in postmodernism there is a movement from (1) the Christian ‘pre -modern’ notion of a revealed determinate metanarrative to (2) the ‘modern’ notion of the autonomy of human reason with access to truth of correspondence to (3) the ‘postmodern’ notion that we create truth as we construct languages that serve our purposes, though these very languages deconstruct upon analysis. ” Sire, 224 ▪ Truth of correspondence = “propositions are true if they correctly describe the realities they purport to describe, false if they do not. ” Erickson, 15 ▪ Metanarratives are illusory. Stories allow people to exercise power over others who believe their stories. ▪ Stories have functional value, not truth value. All stories are inherently contradictory and vary in degree, not kind.

Postmodernism �Question 6: How do we know what is right and wrong? “All narratives mask a play for power. Any one narrative used as a metanarrative is oppressive…Ethics, like knowledge, is a linguistic construct. Social good is whatever society take it to be. ” Sire, 225, 228 ▪ Ethics only exist within individual stories. ▪ Societal ethics are simply the shared stories of a society. ▪ The imposition of one’s story of ethics onto another is oppressive. ▪ Anarchy is often the accepted logical conclusion of this belief system.

Postmodernism �Excursus- Epistemology & Ethics The power of the “strong poets” The oppressive nature of any narrative that is accepted by more than one individual. “There is nothing deep down inside us except what we have put there ourselves, no criterion that we have not created in the course of creating a practice, no standard of rationality that is not an appeal to such a criterion, no rigorous argumentation that is not obedience to our own conventions. ” Richard Rorty, The Consequences of Pragmatism, xlii.

Postmodernism �Question 7: What is the nature of human history? “Postmodernism is in flux, as is postmodernism’s take on the significance of human history, including its own history. ” Sire, 229 ▪ If history is simply a stream of ever-evolving narratives, one might observe and describe this stream, but assigning meaning or organization to it would consist of developing a metanarrative. ▪ Even those who observe and describe the stream are in fact creating narratives with which they hope to exercise power over others. ▪ “History is written by the victors” becomes an accusation that can be equally leveled at anyone who would attempt to say anything about history.

Postmodernism � Question 8: What personal, life-orienting core commitments are consistent with this worldview? “Postmodernism is in flux…This means that the core commitments of many postmodernists are in flux as well. Postmodernists, in short are committed to an endless stream of ‘whatevers’. ” Sire, 229 ▪ Postmoderns are free to accept the metanarratives of their society, another society, or no society or to create their own narratives. ▪ The life and choices of a postmodern are shaped and re-shaped through their use of language…the stories they tell, how they tell them, and why they tell them that way.

Postmodernism �Questions to Ponder: Who do I know who holds this worldview? Where do I see this worldview being promoted within my culture? How has this worldview influenced me? Is this my worldview?

Unit 5 - Session 2 Christian Responses to Postmodernism

Christian Responses to Postmodernism “…the range of Christian responses is often presented as a dichotomy: either one is for it or one is against it. The actual fact of the matter is more complex than that. Not only is the Christian community beginning to realize that the postmodern turn is varied and complex, but it is also learning that responses to it may be varied. ” Myron B. Penner, Christianity and the Postmodern Turn: Six Views This presentation is based in large part on material from Millard J. Erickson, Postmodernizing the Faith: Evangelical Responses to the Challenge of Postmodernism and James W. Sire, The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalogue.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism � Christian responses to postmodernism have varied widely. Millard Erickson has summarized six views across a spectrum of response, from total rejection of postmodernism to a desire to reinvent Christianity along postmodern lines. Before considering these different approaches, let’s compare/contrast the pre-modern, and postmodern mindsets to get a better sense of what is being discussed. � Consider the question, “How do each of these views (pre-modern, post-modern) compare to the Christian worldview? ”

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �The “Pre-Modern Mindset”-Medieval & Ancient Belief in the rationality of the universe. Observable nature was not the whole of reality, thus a dualism of one kind or another: ▪ Religious: Belief in the existence of God or gods ▪ Philosophical: Reality was in “Forms” or “Ideas”, the pure essences of concrete entities (Platonism) Teleological view of reality ▪ History, humanity, etc. had purpose Belief in objective reality and correspondence theory of truth. Referential understanding of language: ▪ “Language does not simply refer to other language, but to something extralinguistic. ” Erickson, 15

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �The “Modern” Mindset- Enlightenment-Present Similar to Pre-Modern View in Embracing: ▪ ▪ Metaphysical realism Correspondence theory of truth Referential theory of language Discernible pattern to history Major shift came in movement from a supernatural reference to a natural point of reference. ▪ ▪ Naturalism & Nature Humanism, Individualism & Anti-authoritarianism The scientific method, Reductionism & Progress Certainty & Determinism

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �The “Postmodern” Mindset Knowledge is not objective. Knowledge is thus uncertain. Currently Emerging ▪ There are no foundational “first principles” upon which to build a worldview (i. e. Foundationalism). Metaphysical and historical metanarratives are impossible and should be abandoned. Inherent goodness of knowledge is dubious. Progress is thus rejected. Community defines individuals and truth; the modern myth of individualism is rejected. Truth is not arrived at strictly through logical/scientific means, but other means such as intuition.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �“Soft” Postmodernism Rejects the following tenets of “hard” modernism: ▪ “dogmatic naturalism and antisupernaturalism” ▪ “reductionist view of reason” ▪ “Limitation of knowledge to sense experience” and of language to verifiable, objective facts ▪ Description of human personality as mere evolutionary machinery ▪ Naivety that denies the effect of historical and cultural situations.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism � “Soft” Postmodernism shares a great deal in common with Christianity that opens the door for dialogue and connection. � With “soft” postmoderns we affirm that: There is more than just the “natural” realm Reductionism does not sufficiently account for human nature and reality Knowledge is bigger than sense perception and individual rationality Language is broader than scientific fact and does have immense sociological ramifications Human personality is more than bio-chemical machine Perspectives are conditioned by time, place and culture/community

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �“Hard” Postmodernism Goes an additional step in “deconstructing”: ▪ Rejects any idea of objectivity and rationality ▪ All metanarratives are seen as power plays ▪ Rejects any objective or extralinguistic reference for meaning and language ▪ Moves from relativism (all perspectives are particular and relative to one another) to pluralism (all perspectives are of the same value and kind) ▪ Meaning is in the eye of the beholder, not the transmitter. “’What it means to me’ is its meaning, even if that is quite different than what it says to you. ” Erickson, 19.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �Over against “hard” postmodernism we say: The rejection of objectivity and rationality assumes, and claims, an objective and rational basis. ▪ Scripture claims an objective and rational reality Postmodernism is a metanarrative…who stands to gain from this power play? ▪ Christians recognize the ways in which Christianity and other religions/philosophies are used as power, including deconstructionism.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism � Over against “hard” postmodernism we say: “…there is an unresolvable paradox in using language to claim that language cannot make unambiguous claims. ” Sire, 240 ▪ Language is a tool for relating in love to God and one another and for conveying reality about God and His creation. While we can admit to the reality of human relativism, we cannot allow for ideological pluralism. ▪ Humans are relativistic, God is absolute. To the degree that God has revealed Himself and given humans the capacity to understand, humans can grasp and articulate absolute truths (i. e. reality as it really is). There is reality and meaning beyond the varied perception of reality and meaning, by which those perceptions can be judged relative to their conformity to that reality and meaning.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism � If we ask the question, “Is Christianity compatible with Postmodernism? ” the answer on the previous slides is “Yes and No. ” � However, other Christians answer the question differently. Let’s consider an illustration from Millard Erickson regarding the ways in which Christians are responding to postmodernism. The illustration asks, “Can Deconstructed Horses Even Be Led to Water? ” (Erickson, 151 -7) In other words, “Can moderate-hard postmoderns possibly embrace Christian evangelicalism, and if so, how? ” � Hopefully, the significance of this question for apologetics, evangelism, cultural relevance, etc. is apparent.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �Can Deconstructed Horses Even Be Led to Water? 1. Yes, but it must be deconstructed water. 2. Yes, but we must use deconstructed rope. 3. Yes, but the horse is not really deconstructed. 4. Yes, but we must first de-deconstruct the horse.

Christian Responses to Postmodernism �Questions to Ponder: What is my response to postmodernism? What is my relationship with those who I know that hold various postmodern notions? How can the gospel message be effectively communicated to a soft or hard postmodern? Who is responsible for finding points of connection between postmoderns and Christians?