Polysemy Semantic Structure of the Word and Semantic

Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word and Semantic Change Lecture # 7 Grigoryeva M.

Semantic Structure of Words semantic structure of a word – a structured set of interrelated lexicosemantic variants semantic structure of a word – combination of various meanings

FIRE I Flame II Destructive Burning Forest fire III IV Burning smth V The shooting Strong feeling in a fire of guns passion Camp fire To open fire I main meaning II-V secondary meanings Speech lacking fire

Types of semantic components Leading component – denotative component (expresses the conceptual content of a word) Additional component- connotative component (gives more full picture of the meaning of a word)

denotative component Lonely connotative component + alone, without company + To glare sad (emotive connotation) to look + lastingly + with anger (connotation of duration) (emotive)

To glance to look + To shiver briefly to tremble + lastingly + with the cold To shudder (duration) (cause) to tremble + briefly (duration) + with horror (emotive)

Types of Lexical Meanings as Elements of a Word’s Semantic Structure Primary : : secondary basic : : minor central : : peripheric direct : : figurative general : : particular abstract : : concrete neutral : : coloured present day : : archaic

Semantic change “HUSBAND” Old English – “a master of the house” Modern English – “a man to whom a woman is married”

Semantic Change development of a new meaning change of meaning Causes of Semantic Change linguistic factor extra-linguistic (historical) factors

Extra-linguistic Causes various changes in the life of the speech community changes in economic and social structures changes in culture, knowledge, technology, arts changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life EX. penna (Latin) “feather of a bird”

Linguistic Causes factors acting within the language system ellipsis – a change of meaning when the meaning of a word-combination is given to only one word of this combination EX (Old English) a train of carriages= a row of carriages (Modern English) a train of carriages

Changes in Denotational Meaning restriction of meanings (narrowing) – restriction of the types or referents denoted by the word extension of meanings (widening) – application of the word to wider variety of referents OE “hound” – a dog of any greed Mo E “hound” – a dog used in chase OE “trunk” – the main stem of a tree Mo E “trunk” – the body of anything

Changes in Denotational Meaning specialization - the word with a new meaning (restricted) comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use OE glide -“to move gently and smoothly” Mo E “glide” -to fly with no engine OE “salary” – money given to soldiers to buy salt with Mo E “salary” – money paid to clerks

Changes in Connotational Meaning pejoration (degradation) – acquiring some negative derogatory emotive charge amelioration (elevation) – improvement of the connotational component . OE “boor”- a villager, a peasant Mo E “boor” – a clumsy or illbred fellow OE “minister” – a servant, an attendant Mo E “minister” – a civil servant of higher rank

Polysemy The ability of words to have more than one meaning is described as polysemy A word having several meanings is called polysemantic Words having only one meaning are called monosemantic (mainly scientific terms)

Polysemy: Meaning and Context Customer I would like a book, please. Bookseller Something light? Customer with me. That doesn’t matter. I have my car

BRIGHT Bright colour (dress, flower) intensive in colour Bright metal (gold, silver) shining Bright student (boy) capable Bright face (smile, eyes) happy

Types of Contexts contexts linguistic, or verbal lexical grammatical extra-linguistic, or non-verbal

Types of Contexts extra-linguistic context – a real speech situation in which the word is used EX. “I’ve got it” – 1) possess 2) understand

Types of Contexts grammatical context – where grammatical structure of the context serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word EX to make 1)“to force, to induce” – make somebody do something “make + smb+ bare infinitive” 2) “to become, to turn out to be” – make a good wife make + adjective + noun

Types of Contexts lexical context – the group of words which fill the grammatical pattern which forms the environment of the analyzed word EX. heavy -”of great weight, weighty” – heavy load, heavy table heavy + natural phenomenon = “striking, falling with force” – heavy rain, heavy wind

V. V. Vinogradov Meaning and Usage Meanings are fixed and common for all people Usage is a possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word Meaning is not identical with usage

A. I. Smirnitsky A lexico-semantic variant (LVC) (a two-facet unit двусторонняя единица ) Formal facet (sound-form) Content facet (one of the meanings) The semantic centre Is the part of meaning which remains constant in all lexico-semantic variants of the word

Dull LVC 1 LVC 2 LVC 3 LVC 4 LVC 5 - boring stupid not bright not loud not sharp EX: a dull book EX: a dull man EX: a dull day, a dull color EX: a dull sound EX: a dull knife The semantic centre – implication of deficiency LVC 1 – deficient in interest LVC 2 – deficient in intellect LVC 3 – deficient in in light or color LVC 4 – deficient in sound LVC 5 – deficient in sharpness

Polysemy: Meaning and Context the meaning of a word in speech is contextual – depends on the context meaning is determined by the context – the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word context individualizes the meanings, brings them out

Diachronic Approach to Polysemy growth and development in the semantic structure of the word retains its previous meanings and at the same time acquires new ones some of the old meanings may become obsolete or disappear

Diachronic Approach to Polysemy primary meaning – the first meaning with which the word appeared in the language secondary meaning – could appear only after the primary meaning derived meaning – could not have appeared before primary meaning was in existence and is dependent on it

Identify the meanings of the words Face • The front part of a head She has a pretty face • The front part of a structure The face of that building is grey.

Heart • The organ that pumps blood He has a weak heart. • The important / central issue The heart of the matter • Kindness She has a kind heart and helps people • One’s deepest feelings He knew in his heart that he was wrong

Nose • The part of a face for smelling and breathing She has a straight nose. • The forward part of certain thing The nose of a plane • Sense of smell Dogs have good noses. • Excessive interest He’d better keep his nose out of my business. • Special ability to find The detective had a nose for tracking criminals.

Synchronic Approach to Polysemy coexistence of various meanings at the same historical period of the development of the language

Synchronic Approach to Polysemy basic/ central meaning – the meaning that first occurs to us whenever we see or hear a word, occurs in different contexts, has the highest frequency minor/ marginal meaning – less frequent, observed only in certain contexts

Synchronic Approach to Polysemy a table - “ a piece of furniture” – central meaning a table - 1)people seated at a table for a meal; 2)food provided at a table minor/ marginal meanings

Smart • He is really smart, he is at the top of the class. Intelligent, able to think well • The child made a smart remark to his father and was sent to bed immediately. Rude • He wore a smart suit and new leather shoes. fashionable, neat

Nature of semantic change similarity of meanings (METAPHOR) contiguity of meanings (METONYMY)

Similarity of Meanings - METAPHOR appearance of a new meaning as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc. ) due to their resemblance

Metaphor similarity of shape EX head of a cabbage, teeth of a saw, bottleneck similarity of position EX foot of a page (of a mountain) similarity of function, behavior EX a bookworm, a (minute) hand similarity of colour EX orange, hazel, chesnut complex similarity EX a leg of a table – similarity in shape, position, function

Contiguity of Meanings - Metonymy association of two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it

Types of Metonymy the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object EX an iron, a mink (“mink coat”) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there EX the city was exited, the White House (US administration) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an orchestra EX the violin, the piano

Types of Metonymy names of inventors often denote things they invented EX watt, om geographical names may be used for things produced there EX china (porcelain), holland (linen fabrics) the name of a painter is used for his masterpieces. EX a Matisse (a painting by Matisse) the name of some person may become a common noun sandwich (Lord Sandwich), boycott (the Boycotts)

Secondary Ways of Semantic Changes hyperbole irony euphemism taboo litotes

Hyperbole the exaggerated statement which should not be understood literally as it expresses an emotional attitude of a speaker to what he is speaking about EX I haven’t seen you for ages It’ll be the death for me

Irony the expression of one meaning by words of opposite sense, usually it is done for the purpose of ridicule EX How nice! (when you are angry) A pretty mess you’ve done of it!

Euphemism referring to something unpleasant by using milder words and phrases so that a formerly inoffensive word receives a disagreeable meaning EX. to pass away = to die

Taboo the case when it is prohibited to pronounce a word and it is replaced by another word or a word-combination EX nigger- Afro American

Litotes expressing the affirmative by the negative of its contrary EX. not bad = good not small = great

Results of Semantic change Change of the denotational meaning Restriction of meaning connotational meaning Extension of meaning Deterioration Amelioration of meaning

• Restriction of meaning - “hound”: “a dog of any breed” “a dog used in chase” (if a word with a new restricted meaning comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary of some limited group within the speech community it is usual to speak of the specialization of meaning) • Extension of meaning “target”: “a small round shield” “anything that is fired at” (if the word with the extended meaning passes from specialized vocabulary into common use, it is generalization of meaning)

SPECIALIZATION Common Specialized vocabulary GENERALIZATION

Results of Semantic change Change of the denotational meaning Restriction Extension of meaning connotational meaning Deterioration of meaning Amelioration of meaning

• Amelioration of meaning implies the improvement of the connotational component of meaning Minister : “a servant” “a civil servant of higher rank” • Deterioration of meaning implies the acquisition by the word of some derogatary emotive charge Boor : “a peasant” “ a clumsy or ill bred fellow”

PRACTICE Define the kind of association involved in the semantic change Example: Glass (a transparent solid substance used for making windows) (a container for drinking made of glass) metonymy

1. Jean (Heavy cotton cloth) Jeans (Trousers made of denim) metonymy 2. The wing of a bird the wing of a building metaphor 3. The foot of a person the foot of a mountain metaphor 4. Copper (metal) copper (coin) metonymy

Analyze the meaning of the words. Identify the result of changes of denotational aspect of the meaning Loan 1. A gift from a superior 2. A sum of money which is borrowed and has to be paid back Restriction of meaning ----specialization

Girl “A small child of either sex” “A small child of female sex” Restriction of meaning---specialization Camp “A place where troops are lodged in tents” “A place where people live in tents or huts” Extension of meaning-----generalization Room ‘Space” “A part of division of a building” Restriction of meaning---specialization

Fly ‘To move with wings’ “To move through the air or in outer space” Extension of meaning-----generalization Champion “a fighting man” “a person who has defeated all rivals in a competition” Restriction of meaning---specialization Rug “rough wooden stuff” “a small rug” Restriction of meaning---specialization

Analyze the meaning of the words. Identify the result of changes of connotational aspect of the meaning Example: Villian 1. ”a feudal serf” 2. ‘a person guilty or capable of a crime” The word acquired a derogatory emotive charge----deterioration of meaning

Knight ‘man servant” “noble man” Amelioration Cunning “possessing erudition or skill” “clever at deceiving” Deterioration Fond “foolish, infatuated (лишившийся рассудка)” “loving, affectionate” Amelioration

Coarse “ordinary, common” “rude or vulgar” Deterioration Violent “having a marked or powerful effect” “using or involving physical force intended to hurt someone” Deterioration Marshal “Manservant attending horses” “an officer of the highest rank” Amelioration

Read the sentences and give all the lexico-semantic variants consulting the semantic structure of the word • The book tries to give simple explanations of scientific ideas. (easy to understand) • Sally likes clothes that are simple but elegant. (plain without decoration) • The simple fact is that he wants a divorce. (not complicated by anything else) • Archeologists found several simple tools at the site. (with only one or two parts) • I’m just a simple farmer. (ordinary) • You may be joking but she is simple enough to believe you. (easily tricked) • I’m afraid old Jack is a bit simple. (weak-minded)

Define the meaning 1. I walked into park, fell flat upon the grass and fell asleep. 2. I thrust my hand through the bars, the dog liked me. 3. At the end of a long bar, leaning against the counter was a slim pale individual wearing a red bow-tie. 4. I sat down with my head in my hands. 5. The minute hand jumped at twelve. 6. I began to search the flat for the key. 4. The authority of his voice set the key for the newspaper report.