Judaism Judaism at a glance Judaism is the

Judaism

Judaism at a glance Judaism is the original of the three Abrahamic faiths, which also includes Christianity and Islam. According to information published by The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute, there were around 13. 1 million Jewish people in the world in 2007, most residing in the United States and Israel. • Judaism originated in the Middle East over 3500 years ago • Jews trace their history back to Abraham. • Jews believe that there is only one God with whom they have a covenant. • In exchange for all the good that God has done for the Jewish people, Jewish people keep God’s laws and try to bring holiness into every aspect of their lives. • Judaism has a rich history of religious text, but the central and most important religious document is the Torah. • Jewish traditional or oral law, the interpretation of the laws of the Torah, is called halakhah. • Spiritual leaders are called Rabbis. • Jews worship in Synagogues. • 6 million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust in an attempt to wipe out Judaism. There are many people who identify themselves as Jewish without necessarily believing in, or observing, any Jewish law

Judaism: Beliefs

Jewish faith and God The relationship with God Jews believe that there is a single God who not only created the universe, but with whom every Jew can have an individual and personal relationship. They believe that God continues to work in the world, affecting everything that people do. The Jewish relationship with God is a covenant relationship. In exchange for the many good deeds that God has done and continues to do for the Jewish People. . . • The Jews keep God's laws • The Jews seek to bring holiness into every aspect of their lives. Judaism is the faith of a Community Jews believe that God appointed the Jews to be His chosen people in order to set an example of holiness and ethical behavior to the world. Jewish life is very much the life of a community and there are many activities that Jews must do as a community. • For example, the Jewish prayer book uses WE and OUR in prayers where some other faiths would use I and MINE. Jews also feel part of a global community with a close bond Jewish people all over the world. A lot of Jewish religious life is based around the home and family activities. Judaism is a family faith Judaism is very much a family faith and the ceremonies start early, when a Jewish boy baby is circumcised at eight days old, following the instructions that God gave to Abraham around 4, 000 years ago. Many Jewish religious customs revolve around the home. One example is the Sabbath meal, when families join together to welcome in the special day.

Jewish faith in God (continued) Who is a Jew? • Jews believe that a Jew is someone who is the child of a Jewish mother; although some groups also accept children of Jewish fathers as Jewish. A Jew traditionally can't lose the technical 'status' of being a Jew by adopting another faith, but they do lose the religious element of their Jewish identity. • Someone who isn't born a Jew can convert to Judaism, but it is not easy to do so. Judaism means living the faith • Almost everything a Jewish person does can become an act of worship. • Because Jews have made a bargain with God to keep His laws, keeping that bargain and doing things in the way that pleases God is an act of worship. • And Jews don't only seek to obey the letter of the law - the particular details of each of the Jewish laws - but the spirit of it, too. • A religious Jew tries to bring holiness into everything they do, by doing it as an act that praises God, and honors everything God has done. For such a person the whole of their life becomes an act of worship. • Being part of a community that follows particular customs and rules helps keep a group of people together, and it's noticeable that the Jewish groups that have been most successful at avoiding assimilation are those that obey the rules most strictly - sometimes called ultra-orthodox Jews. • Note: Jews don't like and rarely use the word ultra-orthodox. A preferable adjective is haredi, and the plural noun is haredim. It's what you do that counts. . . • Judaism is a faith of action and Jews believe people should be judged not so much by the intellectual content of their beliefs, but by the way they live their faith - by how much they contribute to the overall holiness of the world.

The Jewish view of God A summary of what Jews believe about God • God exists • There is only one God • There are no other gods • God can't be subdivided into different persons (unlike the Christian view of God) • Jews should worship only the one God • God is Transcendent: • God is above and beyond all earthly things. • God doesn't have a body • Which means that God is neither female nor male. • God created the universe without help • God is omnipresent: • God is everywhere, all the time. • God is omnipotent: • God can do anything at all. • God is beyond time: • God has always existed • God will always exist. • God is just, but God is also merciful • God punishes the bad • God rewards the good • God is forgiving towards those who mess things up. • God is personal and accessible. • God is interested in each individual • God listens to each individual • God sometimes speaks to individuals, but in unexpected ways.

The Jewish view of God (continued) The Jews brought new ideas about God The Jewish idea of God is particularly important to the world because it was the Jews who developed two new ideas about God: • There is only one God • God chooses to behave in a way that is both just and fair. Before Judaism, people believed in many gods, and those gods behaved no better than human beings with supernatural powers. The Jews found themselves with a God who was ethical and good.

God in the Bible But how do Jews know this about God? They don't know it, they believe it, which is different. However, many religious people often talk about God in a way that sounds as if they know about God in the same way that they know what they had for breakfast. • For instance, religious people often say they are quite certain about God - by which they mean that they have an inner certainty. • And many people have experiences that they believe were times when they were in touch with God. The best evidence for what God is like comes from what the Bible says, and from particular individuals' experiences of God.

God and the Bible (continued) • Quite early in his relationship with the Jews, God makes it clear that He will not let them encounter His real likeness in the way that they encounter each other. • The result is that the Jews have work out what God is like from what He says and what He does. • The story is in Exodus 33 and follows the story of the 10 commandments, and the Golden Calf. • Moses has spent much time talking with God, and the two of them are clearly quite close. . . “The LORD would speak to Moses face to face, as a man speaks with his friend. ” Exodus 33 • But after getting the 10 commandments Moses wants to see God, so that he can know what He is really like. God says no. . . “you cannot see my face, for no one may see me and live. Then the LORD said, There is a place near me where you may stand on a rock. When my glory passes by, I will put you in a cleft in the rock and cover you with my hand until I have passed by. Then I will remove my hand you will see my back; but my face must not be seen. ” Exodus 33

Two sides of God Jews combine two different sounding ideas of God in their beliefs: • God is an all-powerful being who is quite beyond human ability to understand or imagine. • God is right here with us, caring about each individual as a parent does their child. A great deal of Jewish study deals with the creative power of two apparently incompatible ideas of God.

Converting to Judaism • Converting to Judaism is not easy. It involves many lifestyle changes and about a year of studying. • Becoming a Jew is not just a religious change: the convert not only accepts the Jewish faith, but becomes a member of the Jewish People and embraces Jewish culture and history.

Conversion and Jewish law Conversion to Judaism is a process governed by Jewish religious law. Conversions are overseen by a religious court, which must be convinced that the convert: • is sincere • is converting for the right reasons • is converting of their own free will • has a thorough knowledge of Jewish faith and practices • will live an observant Jewish life There also two ritual requirements: • a male convert must undergo circumcision - if they are already circumcised, a single drop of blood is drawn as a symbolic circumcision • the convert must undergo immersion in a Jewish ritual bath, a mikveh, with appropriate prayers

Judaism and conversion • Judaism is not a missionary faith and so doesn't actively try to convert people (in many countries anti-Jewish laws prohibited this for centuries). • Despite this, the modern Jewish community increasingly welcomes wouldbe converts. • A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism. There is a good precedent for this; Ruth, the great-great grandmother of King David, was a convert. • Orthodox Jews usually don't accept the validity of conversions done by non. Orthodox institutions - because many Orthodox Jewish communities do not accept that non-Orthodox rabbis have valid rabbinical status.

Why convert? The most common reasons put forward are: • because the person believes the faith and culture of the Jewish people is right for them • in order to marry someone Jewish • in order to bring up children with a Jewish identity But only the first of these should be accepted as the true reason for conversion - the convert must have an overpowering wish to join the Jewish people and share in their destiny, and be committed to loving God and following His wishes as expressed in the Torah. There is no other reason that can enable a person to truly enter the covenant between God and the Jewish people, and do it freely, without reservation, forever, and to the exclusion of all other faiths.

How to convert Different forms of Judaism have different conversion mechanisms, but this outline of what is involved covers the basics for all: • discuss possible conversion with a rabbi • study Jewish beliefs, history, rituals and practices • learn some Hebrew • get involved with Jewish community life • believe in G-d and the divinity of the Torah • agree to observe all 613 mitzvot (commandments) of the Torah • agree to live a fully Jewish life • circumcision (men only) • immersion in a mikveh or ritual bath • appear before a Bet Din (a religious court) and obtain their approval

Talking to the Rabbi Conversion to Judaism is not something to be done lightly. The rabbi will want to make sure that the person really wants to convert, and that they know what they're doing. Some rabbis used to test would-be converts by turning them away three times, in order to see how sincere and determined they are. This is unusual nowadays. If a person doesn't know any rabbis to discuss conversion with, they probably haven't got close enough to Judaism and Jewish life to be thinking of converting. They should start by talking to Jewish people, and attending some synagogue services. The rabbi asks the would-be convert a lot of questions - not just as a test of their sincerity, but in order to help the convert form a clear understanding of what they want to do: • Why do you want to convert? • What do you know about Judaism? • Are you converting of your own free will? • Have you discussed conversion with your family? • Will you accept Judaism as your only religious faith and practice? • Will you enter into the covenant between God and the Jewish people? • Will you bring up your children as Jews? • Are you willing to study in order to convert? • Will you live as a member of the Jewish people?

Studying • Would-be converts study Jewish beliefs, rituals, history, culture (including some Hebrew) and customs. • They do this through courses, or by individual study with a rabbi. At the same time they will start going to services, joining in home practices (with members of their local community) and taking part in synagogue life.

Judaism: Customs

Sabbath The Sabbath is commanded by God • Every week religious Jews observe the Sabbath, the Jewish holy day, and keep its laws and customs. • The Sabbath begins at nightfall on Friday and lasts until nightfall on Saturday. In practical terms the Sabbath starts a few minutes before sunset on Friday and runs until an hour after sunset on Saturday, so it lasts about 25 hours. • God commanded the Jewish People to observe the Sabbath and keep it holy as the fourth of the Ten Commandments. • The idea of a day of rest comes from the Bible story of the Creation: God rested from creating the universe on the seventh day of that first week, so Jews rest from work on the Sabbath. • Jews often call the day Shabbat, which is Hebrew for Sabbath, and which comes from the Hebrew word for rest. A reminder of the Covenant • The Sabbath is part of the deal between God and the Jewish People, so celebrating it is a reminder of the Covenant and an occasion to rejoice in God's kept promises. A gift from God • Most Jewish people look forward to Shabbat all week. They see it as God's gift to His chosen people of a day when they take time out from everyday things to feel special. • Shabbat is a time with no television, no rushing to the demands of the telephone or a busy work schedule. • People don't think about work or other stressful things. • It's an oasis of calm, a time of stillness in life.

Sabbath (continued) Sabbath greetings • The traditional Sabbath greetings are Shabbat Shalom (Hebrew), or Gut Shabbos (Yiddish). A family time • Shabbat is very much a time when families come together in the presence of God in their own home. • Singles, or others with no family around may form a group to celebrate Shabbat together. Sabbath customs • In order to avoid work and to ensure that the Sabbath is special, all chores like shopping, cleaning, and cooking for the Sabbath must be finished before sunset on Friday. • People dress up for Shabbat and go to considerable trouble to ensure that everything is organized to obey the commandment to make the Sabbath a delight. • Sabbath candles are lit at sunset on a Friday. The woman of the house usually performs this ritual. It is an integral part of Jewish custom and ceremony. • The candles are placed in candlesticks. They mark the beginning of each Sabbath and represent the two commandments Zachor (to remember the Sabbath) and Shamor (to observe the Sabbath). • After the candles are lit, Jewish families will drink wine. Sabbath wine is sweet and is usually drunk from a special goblet known as the Kiddush Cup. The drinking of wine on the Sabbath symbolizes joy and celebration.

Sabbath (continued) • It is also traditional to eat challah, a soft rich eggy bread in the shape of a braid. Challah is eaten on the Sabbath and Jewish holidays except for the Passover when leavened bread is not permitted. • Under Jewish law, every Jew must eat three meals on the Sabbath. One of the meals must include bread. Observant Jews will usually eat challah at the beginning of a Sabbath meal. • Before the challah is eaten, the following prayer is recited: “Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu Melech ha'olam, hamotzi lechem min ha'aretz. ” This means: “Blessed are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, who brings forth bread from the earth. ” • Other blessings, prayers, songs and readings may also be used. • It is traditional, too, for parents to bless their children on Shabbat. • Some of the family will have been to synagogue before the Sabbath meal, and it is likely that the whole family will go on Saturday.

Tefillin • Tefillin (sometimes called phylacteries) are cubic black leather boxes with leather straps that Orthodox Jewish men wear on their head and their arm during weekday morning prayer. Observant Jews consider wearing tefillin to be a very great mitzvah (command). • The boxes contain four hand-written texts from the Bible, in which believers are commanded to wear certain words on the hand between the eyes. The texts are Exodus 13: 1 -10, 13: 11 -16; Deuteronomy 6: 4 -9, 11: 12 -21. • The hand tefillin has all four texts written on a single parchment strip but the head tefillin has four separate compartments, with a single text in each. • Jewish men start wearing tefillin just before their Bar Mitzvah. • As with all ritual objects there are very specific rules about how to make tefillin, and how to wear them.

Tefillin (continued) Making tefillin • Tefillin can only be made by specialists and often come with a certificate from a rabbi to prove that they've been made properly. • The rules do not exist for their own sake, but to ensure that an article of such enormous religious significance is perfect in every way. • The texts have to be written with halachically acceptable (acceptable according to Jewish law) ink on halachically acceptable parchment. There are precise rules for writing the texts and any error invalidates it. For example, the letters of the text must be written in order - if a mistake is found later, it can't be corrected as the replacement letter would have been written out of sequence. • There are 3188 letters on the parchments, and it can take a scribe as long as 15 hours to write a complete set. The scribe is required to purify himself in the mikvah (ritual bath) before he starts work. • The leather boxes and straps must be completely black. The boxes must be perfectly square seen from above. The stitches must also be perfectly square, and both thread and leather must be halachically acceptable. Wearing tefillin • The arm tefillin is put on first, on the upper part of the weaker arm. A blessing is recited and the strap wrapped round the arm seven times. • The head tefillin is loosely fastened on the head about one centimeter above a person's original hairline (the fact that a man's hair has receded is ignored). A blessing is recited and the strap is tightened with the knot at the back of the head. • The strap of the hand tefillin is then wound three times round the middle finger while reciting Hosea 2: 21 -2.

Eruvs What is an Eruv? • An eruv is an area within which observant Jews can carry or push objects on the Sabbath, (which lasts from sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday), without violating a Jewish law that prohibits carrying anything except within the home. There are over 200 eruvs (or eruvim) in the world. • An eruv must be 'completely enclosed'. The area is not enclosed by building a special wall round it - most of it is enclosed by existing natural boundaries like railway lines or walls. What matters is that the area is completely enclosed by boundaries that conform to Jewish law.

Eruvs (continued) What does an eruv allow people to do? An eruv mixes the boundary between the area within the home and the area outside it. The result is that within an eruv Orthodox Jews can follow the same rules on the Sabbath that they would in their homes. Jewish law says that Jews must not carry any item, no matter how small or for whatever purpose in a Reshus Ha. Rabim (public domain - outside their home) on the Sabbath, even if they are allowed to carry them within their home. Pushing things is also forbidden - so families with small children (who would use prams and pushchairs) or the physically disabled (who would use wheelchairs) are effectively housebound. They can't even go to the synagogue to fulfil their religious duties on the Sabbath. But both carrying and pushing are allowed inside an eruv because it's regarded as within the home domain. So in an eruv Jews can: • carry house keys (but not car or office keys) • carry a handkerchief • carry food or drink for use during the Sabbath • carry prayer shawls • carry books - normally a Jew can't even carry a prayer book on the Sabbath • carry essential medicines - for example a diabetic Jew can now carry their insulin with them • carry extra clothes such as a raincoat • carry nappies • carry reading glasses • push a pram or wheelchair • use a walking frame or crutches An eruv therefore makes it easier for Jews to follow the spirit of the Sabbath by making it enjoyable and fulfilling, without breaking the rules that keep it holy.

Eruvs (continued) What doesn't an eruv allow? • An eruv doesn't permit Orthodox Jews to carry things that cannot be moved at all on the Sabbath, such as mobile phones or pens or wallets, or carry things for use after the Sabbath. • Nor does an eruv permit Jews to do things that break the spirit of the Sabbath such as going shopping or swimming, riding a bicycle or playing football in the park, or gardening.

Kippah/Yarmulke • Clothing worn by Jews usually varies according to which denomination of Judaism they adhere to. • Orthodox Jewish men always cover their heads by wearing a skullcap known in Hebrew as a kippah or in Yiddish as a yarmulke. Liberal or Reform Jews see the covering of the head as optional. • Most Jews will cover their heads when praying, attending the synagogue or at a religious event or festival. • Wearing a skullcap is seen as a sign of devoutness. • Women also cover their heads by wearing a scarf or a hat. • The most common reason (for covering the head) is a sign of respect and fear of God. It is also felt that this separates God and human, by wearing a hat you are recognizing that God is above all mankind. History • There is disagreement over whether the covering of one's head is a Torah commandment. However there is some evidence in the Talmud (Jewish teachings) that some form of head covering is required.

History of Judaism

The Old Testament • The history of Judaism is inseparable from the history of Jews themselves. The early part of the story is told in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). • It describes how God chose the Jews to be an example to the world, and how God and His chosen people worked out their relationship. • It was a stormy relationship much of the time, and one of the fascinating things about Jewish history is to watch God changing and developing alongside His people.

The Bronze Age • Jewish history begins during the Bronze age in the Middle East. • The birth of the Jewish people and the start of Judaism is told in the first 5 books of the Bible. • God chose Abraham to be the father of a people who would be special to God, and who would be an example of good behavior and holiness to the rest of the world. • God guided the Jewish people through many troubles, and at the time of Moses he gave them a set of rules by which they should live, including the Ten Commandments.

The birth of Judaism • This was the beginning of Judaism as a structured religion. • The Jews, under God’s guidance became a powerful people with kings such as Saul, David, and Solomon, who built the first great temple. • From then on Jewish worship was focused on the Temple, as it contained the Ark of the Covenant, and was the only place where certain rites could be carried out.

The kingdom declines • Around 920 BCE, the kingdom fell apart, and the Jewish people split into groups. • This was the time of the prophets. • Around 600 BCE the temple was destroyed, and the Jewish leadership was killed. • Many Jews were sent into exile in Babylon. Although the Jews were soon allowed to return home, many stayed in exile, beginning the Jewish tradition of the Diaspora - living away from Israel.

Rebuilding a Jewish kingdom • The Jews grew in strength throughout the next 300 years BCE, despite their lands being ruled by foreign powers. At the same time they became more able to practice their faith freely, led by scribes and teachers who explained and interpreted the Bible. • In 175 BCE the King of Syria desecrated the temple and implemented a series of laws aiming to wipe out Judaism in favor of Zeus worship. There was a revolt (164 BCE) and the temple was restored. • The revolt is celebrated in the Jewish festival of Hannukah.

Roman Times • For a period the Jewish people governed themselves again and were at peace with the Roman Empire. But internal divisions weakened the Jewish kingdom and allowed the Romans to establish control in 63 BCE. • In the years that followed, the Jewish people were taxed and oppressed by a series of "puppet" rulers who neglected the practice of Judaism. • The priests or Sadducees were allied to the rulers and lost favor with the people, who turned increasingly to the Pharisees or Scribes. These were also known as Rabbis, meaning teachers.

1 CE - 70 CE: Rabbinic Judaism • The Rabbis encouraged the Jewish people to observe ethical laws in all aspects of life, and observe a cycle of prayer and festivals in the home and at synagogues. • This involved a major rethink of Jewish life. Although the Temple still stood, its unique place as the focus of Jewish prayer and practice was diminished. Many synagogues had been founded in Palestine and right around the Jewish Diaspora. • Great teaching academies were founded in the first century BCE with scholars discussing and debating God's laws. The most well known of the early teachers were Hillel, and his contemporary Shammai.

70 - 200 CE: The destruction of the Temple • This was a period of great change - political, religious, cultural and social turmoil abounded in Palestine. The Jewish academies flourished but many Jews could not bear being ruled over by the Romans. • During the first 150 years CE the Jews twice rebelled against their Roman leaders, both rebellions were brutally put down, and were followed by stern restrictions on Jewish freedom. • The first revolt, in 70 CE, led to the destruction of the Temple. This brought to an end the temple worship and is still perceived by traditional Jews as the biggest trauma in Jewish history. It is marked by the fast day of Tisha B'av (meaning the ninth day of the month of Av). • A second revolt, in 132 CE, resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of Jews, the enslaving of thousands of others, and the banning of Jews from Jerusalem

200 - 700 CE: The Mishna and Talmud • Between 200 and 700 CE Judaism developed rapidly. • Following the twin religious and political traumas, the academies moved to new centers both in Palestine and in the Diaspora. A sense of urgency had taken hold and it was considered vital to write down the teachings of the Rabbis so that Judaism could continue. • Around 200 CE, scholars compiled the Mishna, the collection of teachings, sayings and interpretations of the early Rabbis. • The academies continued their work and several generations of Rabbis followed. Their teachings were compiled in the Talmud which expands on the interpretations of the Mishna and established an all-encompassing guide to life. • The Talmud exists in two forms. The first was finalized around the 3 rd century CE in Palestine, and the second and superior version was completed during the 5 th century CE in Babylon. • During this period Jews were allowed to become Roman citizens, but later were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to marry Christians. • In 439 CE the Romans banned synagogue building, and barred Jews from official jobs.

The Golden Age — The Jews in Spain • The years either side of 1000 CE were the golden age of the Jews in Spain. • Co-existing happily with the country’s Islamic rulers the Jews developed a flourishing study of Science, Hebrew literature and the Talmud. • Despite an attempt to forcibly convert all Jews to Islam in 1086 CE, this golden age continued. • At around this time the first Jews are recorded in Britain.

The Crusades • The next Millennium began with the Crusades, military operations by Christian countries to capture the Holy Land. • The armies of the first Crusade attacked Jewish communities on their way to Palestine, especially in Germany. • When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem they slaughtered and enslaved thousands of Jews as well as Muslims. • Following the example of the Romans earlier, they banned Jews from the city. • In Britain, the Jewish population increased, benefiting from the protection of Henry I.

The bad times return The 1100 s were a seriously bad period. Jews were driven from southern Spain by a Berber invasion. Serious anti-Jewish incidents began to occur in Europe: • in France Jews were accused of ritually murdering a child • in England Jews were murdered while trying to give gifts to the King at Richard I’s coronation • 150 Jews were massacred in York, England • in 1215 the Catholic Church ordered Jews to live in segregated areas (ghettos) and to wear distinctive clothes.

Expulsions • In England the Jews faced increasing restrictions during the Thirteenth Century, and in 1290 they were all expelled from England. • Shortly afterwards the Jews were expelled from France. • In 1478 the Jews in Spain suffered under the Spanish Inquisition, and in 1492 Jews were expelled from Spain altogether. The same thing happened in Portugal in 1497. • 50 years later in Germany, Martin Luther (founder of Protestant Christianity) preached viciously against the Jews.

Scholarship, literature, and mysticism • But it wasn’t an entirely bad period for Judaism. Scholarship and literature flourished, with figures like Rambam, Luria, Levi ben Gershom, and Eleazar ben Judah. • The Jewish form of mysticism, known as Kabbalah reached new heights with the publication in Spain of the Book of Splendor, which influenced Jewish Spirituality for centuries.

Jews return to Britain/come to America • This was a period of Jewish expansion. • Jews were allowed to return to England their rights of citizenship steadily increased. • In 1760 the main representative organization for British Jewry, The Board of Deputies of British Jews, was founded. • Jews were first recorded in America in 1648.

Hassidism • Poland Central Europe saw the creation of a new Jewish movement of immense importance - Hassidism. • It followed the example of the Baal Shem Tov (1700 -1760) who said that you didn’t have to be an ascetic to be holy; indeed he thought that the appropriate mood for worship was one of joy. • The movement included large amounts of Kabbalic mysticism as well, and the way it made holiness in every day life both intelligible and enjoyable, helped it achieve great popularity among ordinary Jews. • However it also led to divisions within Judaism, as many in the religious establishment were strongly against it. • In Lithuania in 1772 Hassidism was excommunicated, and Hassidic Jews were banned from marrying or doing business with other Jews.

Persecution in Central Europe • Towards the end of the 1700 s Jews began to suffer persecution in central Europe, and in Russia they began to be restricted to living in a particular area of the country, called The Pale.

The birth of Reform Judaism • In the 19 th Century another new movement appeared in Judaism. • This was Reform Judaism, which began in Germany and held that Jewish law and ritual should move with the times, and not be fixed. • It introduced many changes to worship, and customs, and grew rapidly into a strong movement. It continues to flourish in Europe and the United States.

United Kingdom and United States • In Britain and America this was the century of Jewish immigration, with great numbers of Jewish people arriving to escape the pogroms in Poland Russia. • The Jewish population of Britain increased by 250, 000 in 30 years. It was at this time that the East End of London became a center of Jewish life in Britain. However in 1905 the United Kingdom passed a law that slowed immigration to a mere trickle.

The birth of Zionism • The Zionist movement, whose aim was to create a Jewish state, was rooted in centuries of Jewish prayer and yearning to return to the land of Israel. • Political Zionism began in the mid-19 th Century and towards the end of the century it gained strength as many Jews began to feel that the only way they could live in safety would be to have a country of their own. • In the Balfour Declaration of 1917, the British Government agreed that a national home for Jewish people should be established in Palestine. Following the First World War, the British governed the region in preparation for a permanent political arrangement. • Over the next few years Jewish immigration increased and important institutions were founded such as the Israeli Chief Rabbinate, and the Hebrew University.

The Holocaust • Jewish history of the 1930 s and 1940 s is dominated by the Holocaust, the implementation on an industrial scale of a plan to wipe the whole Jewish people from the face of Europe. • The plan was carried out by the Nazi government of Germany and their allies. • During the Holocaust 6 million Jewish people were murdered, 1 million of them children. • The events of the Holocaust have shaped Jewish thinking, and the thinking of other people about Jewish issues ever since. War crimes trials of those involved in the Holocaust continue to this day. • The tragedy affected much of the religious thinking of Jews, as they try to make sense of a God who could allow such a thing to happen to His chosen people.

The State of Israel • The second defining Jewish event of the century was the achievement of the Zionist movement in the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. • There had been strong and paramilitary opposition to British colonial rule for many years, and in 1947 the United Nations agreed a plan to partition the land between Jews and Arabs. In May 1948 the British Government withdrew their forces. • Immediately, the surrounding Arab States invaded and the new Jewish State was forced to fight the first of several major wars. Notable among these were the 6 -day war in 1967 and the Yom Kippur war in 1973. • The first steps towards a permanent peace came when Israel signed a peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, and with Jordan in 1994. • For most of its history Israel has had an uneasy relationship with the Arab states that surround it, and has been greatly sustained by the help and support of the United States, where the Jewish community is large and influential. • The 21 st century began with great political uncertainty over Israel and its relationship with the Palestinian people, and this continues.

Holy Days

Rosh Hashanah • The Jewish New Year, when Jews believe God decides what will happen in the year ahead. The synagogue services for this festival emphasize God's kingship and include the blowing of the shofar, a ram's horn trumpet. • This is also God's time for judgement. Jews believe God balances a person's good deeds over the last year against their bad deeds and decides their fate accordingly. • The 10 days beginning with Rosh Hashanah are known as the Days of Awe, during which Jews are expected to find all the people they have hurt during the previous year and apologize to them. They have until Yom Kippur to do this.

Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) • The Day of Atonement is regarded as a sacred and solemn occasion, on which synagogue attendance is particularly important. On Yom Kippur Jews believe God makes the final decision on who will live, die, prosper and fail during the next year, and seals His judgement in the Book of Life. • It is a day of fasting. Worship includes the confession of sins and asking forgiveness, which is done aloud by the entire congregation.

Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacle) • The book of Exodus tells the story of the Israelites' journey to the promised land. Sukkot commemorates these years spent wandering the desert, living in makeshift dwellings. • For the duration of the festival Jewish families live in temporary huts called sukkot (singular: sukkah) that they build out of branches and leaves. • Each day they hold celebrations with four types of plant: branches of palm, myrtle and willow and a citrus fruit called an etrog. Sukkot is intended to be a joyful festival that lets Jews live close to nature and know that God is taking care of them.

Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah • Shemini Atzeret is an extra day after the end of Sukkot. Jews spend some time in their sukkah, but not as much, and without some of the rituals. • Simchat Torah means "Rejoicing in the Torah". Synagogues read from the Torah every week, completing one read-through each year. They reach the end on Simchat Torah and this holiday marks the completion of the cycle, to begin again the next week with Genesis.

Hanukkah (Chanukah) • The story of Hanukkah is that of the "miracle of the oil". In 164 BC, a group of Jews called the Maccabees recaptured Jerusalem from the occupying Syrian Greeks. When they came to rededicate the temple, they had only enough sacred oil to light the menorah (seven-branched candlestick) for one day. • It is said that the candles stayed lit for eight days despite this. During the eight days of Hanukkah, Jews light one extra candle on a special nine-branched menorah, called chanukkiya, each night. • They say prayers and eat fried foods to remind them of the oil. Some gifts are exchanged, including chocolate money and special spinning tops called dreidels.

Tu B'Shevat • Tu B'Shevat is the Jewish New Year for Trees. The Torah forbids Jews to eat the fruit of new trees for three years after they are planted. The fourth year's fruit was to be tithed to the Temple. • Tu B'Shevat was counted as the birthday for all trees for tithing purposes, like the beginning of a fiscal year. On Tu B'Shevat Jews often eat fruits associated with the Holy Land, especially the seven plants mentioned in the Torah: wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates. Planting trees is another tradition.

Purim • Purim celebrates the events told in the Book of Esther, in which a wicked Persian nobleman named Haman plotted to murder all the Jews in the land. • The Jewish heroine Esther, wife of the king Ahasuerus, persuaded her husband to prevent the massacre and execute Haman. Because Esther fasted before going to the king, Purim is preceded by a fast. On Purim itself, however, Jews are commanded to eat, drink a lot and celebrate. • Almsgiving is also a very important Purim tradition. The Book of Esther is read in the synagogue and the congregation use rattles, cymbals and boos to drown out Haman's name whenever it appears.

Passover (Pesach) • This is one of the most important Jewish festivals. During Passover, Jews remember the story of the Israelites liberation from slavery in Egypt. • God unleashed ten plagues on the Egyptians, culminating in the death of every family's eldest son. God told the Israelites to sacrifice lambs and mark their doors with the blood to escape this fate. They ate the lambs with bitter herbs and unleavened bread (unrisen bread without yeast). • These form three of the components of the family meal, called the seder, eaten by Jews on the first two nights of Passover. • There are blessings, songs and other ingredients to symbolize parts of the story. During the meal the adults explain the symbolism to the children.

Shavuot • Shavuot, or the festival of Weeks, is a harvest festival. Historically, at this time of year the first fruits of the harvest were brought to the temples. • Shavuot also marks the time that the Jews were given the Torah on Mount Sinai. • Shavuot is marked by prayers of thanks for the Holy Book and study of its scriptures. Customs include decorating synagogues with flowers and eating dairy foods.

Tisha B'Av • This is a day of commemoration for a series of tragedies that have befallen the Jewish people, some of which coincidentally happened on this day, for example the destruction of the first and second temples in ancient Jerusalem. • Other tragedies are commemorated on this day, such as the beginning of World War I and the Holocaust. As Tisha B'Av is a day of mourning Jews observe a strict fast and avoid laughing, joking and chatting. • Synagogues are dimly lit and undecorated and the Torah draped in black cloth.

Ethics

Abortion • Judaism does not forbid abortion, but it does not permit abortion on demand. Abortion is only permitted for serious reasons. • Judaism expects every case to be considered on its own merits and the decision to be taken after consultation with a rabbi competent to give advice on such matters. • Strict Judaism permits abortion only in cases where continuing the pregnancy would put the mother's life in serious danger. • In such circumstance (where allowing the pregnancy to continue would kill the mother) Judaism insists that the fetus must be aborted, since the mother's life is more important than that of the fetus. • Jewish law is more lenient concerning abortions in the first forty days of pregnancy as it considers the embryo to be of relatively low value during this time. • Abortions because of defects in the fetus or to protect the mental health of the mother are forbidden by some schools of Judaism and permitted by others under differing circumstances. • The argument for allowing such abortions is normally based on the pain that will be caused to the mother if the pregnancy is allowed to continue.

Capital Punishment • Anyone reading the Old Testament list of 36 capital crimes might think that Judaism is in favor of capital punishment, but they'd be wrong. During the period when Jewish law operated as a secular as well as a religious jurisdiction, Jewish courts very rarely imposed the death penalty. The state of Israel has abolished the death penalty for any crime that is now likely to be tried there. • To really understand Jewish law one must not only read the Torah but consult the Talmud, an elaboration and interpretation by rabbinical scholars of the laws and commandments of the Torah. • The rabbis who wrote the Talmud created such a forest of barriers to actually using the death penalty that in practical terms it was almost impossible to punish anyone by death.

Contraception, including artificial contraception, is permitted in Judaism in appropriate circumstances. Reform and Liberal schools of Judaism allow birth control for a wide range of reason. Orthodox Judaism is more restrictive. The methods of contraception allowed under Jewish law are those that do not damage the sperm or stop it getting to its intended destination. These are the contraceptive pill and the IUD. The religious view on birth control is based on two principles: • it is a commandment to marry and have children • it is forbidden to 'waste seed' (to emit semen while at the same time preventing conception) The modern Orthodox position permits the use of contraception in these cases: • when pregnancy or childbirth might harm the mother • to limit the number of children in a family for the benefit of the family • to delay or space out having children • but a married couple should not use contraception for the selfish reason of avoiding having children altogether.

Genetic Engineering • Jewish experts have thought particularly hard about genetic engineering. This is partly because their community has an obvious application for the technology since there's a particular genetic disease, Tay Sachs, that targets some types of Jewish people, and partly because Jewish law, Halacha, has examined medical issues in great depth throughout history. • It is also a painful subject for the Jewish community, not just because of the suffering of individuals, but because false genetic and eugenic arguments were used to justify the Holocaust in which over 6 million Jews were murdered.

War • Judaism does not regard violence and war to promote justice as always wrong. It accepts that certain kinds of war will be ethically justified, and that it is sometimes morally acceptable to kill people. • Before declaring war or starting a battle there must be a genuine attempt to make peace and avoid the conflict. • Jewish law only permits combatants to be deliberately killed in war. Innocent civilians must be given every opportunity to leave the field of combat before a battle starts.

Animals • Judaism teaches that animals are part of God's creation and should be treated with compassion. Human beings must avoid tzar baalei chayim - causing pain to any living creature. God Himself makes a covenant with the animals, just as He does with humanity. • The Talmud specifically instructs Jews not to cause pain to animals, and there also several Bible stories which use kindness to animals as a demonstration of the virtues of leading Jewish figures. • Judaism also teaches that it is acceptable to harm or kill animals if that is the only way to fulfil an essential human need. • This is because people take priority over animals, something stated very early in the Bible, where God gives human beings the right to control all non-human animals. • Human beings are therefore allowed to use animals for food and clothing - and to provide parchment on which to write the Bible.

Euthanasia and Suicide The Jewish tradition regards the preservation of human life as one of its supreme moral values and forbids doing anything that might shorten life. However, it does not require doctors to make dying last longer than it naturally would. • Jewish law and tradition regard human life as sacred, and say that it is wrong for anyone to shorten a human life • this is because our lives are not ours to dispose of as we feel like • all life is of infinite value, regardless of its duration or quality, because all human beings are made in the image of God • saving someone from pain is not a reason to kill them • nor is it lawful to kill oneself to save oneself from pain • but there is a limit to the duty to keep people alive • if someone's life is ending and they are in serious pain, doctors have no duty to make that person suffer more by artificially extending their dying moments • it is also acceptable to ask God in prayer to remove a person from their pain and suffering

People

Abraham • The history of the Jewish people begins in Bronze Age times in the Middle East when God promised a nomad leader called Abram that he would be the father of a great people if he did as God told him. • Jews regard Abraham (as he was later called) as the first Patriarch of the Jewish people. • Abraham was the first person to teach the idea that there was only one God; before then, people believed in many gods. • Ironically, Abraham's father, Terach, had made his living selling idols of various gods.

Isaiah • The 8 th-century BC Jewish prophet for whom the Book of Isaiah is named. • Within the text of the Book of Isaiah, Isaiah himself is referred to as "the prophet", but the exact relationship between the Book of Isaiah and any such historical Isaiah is complicated. The traditional view is that all 66 chapters of the book of Isaiah were written by one man, Isaiah, possibly in two periods between 740 BCE and c. 686 BCE, separated by approximately 15 years, and includes dramatic prophetic declarations of Cyrus the Great in the Bible, acting to restore the nation of Israel from Babylonian captivity. Another widely-held view is that parts of the first half of the book (chapters 1– 39) originated with the historical prophet, interspersed with prose commentaries written in the time of King Josiah a hundred years later, and that the remainder of the book dates from immediately before and immediately after the end of the exile in Babylon, almost two centuries after the time of the historic prophet

Joshua • Successor to the famous leader, Moses, Joshua is the Bible's most famous warrior. He completed Moses’ task of taking the Israelites across to Jordan River to the “Promised Land” of Israel.

David • David is described in the Hebrew Bible as the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. • In the biblical narrative, David is a young shepherd, chosen by God for his pure heart, who first gains fame as a musician and later by killing Goliath. He becomes a favorite of King Saul and a close friend of Saul's son Jonathan. Worried that David is trying to take his throne, Saul turns on David. After Saul and Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed as King. David conquers Jerusalem, taking the Ark of the Covenant into the city, and establishing the kingdom founded by Saul. As king, David commits adultery with Bathsheba, leading him to arrange the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite. Because of this sin, God denies David the opportunity to build the temple, and his son Absalom tries to overthrow him. David flees Jerusalem during Absalom's rebellion, but after Absalom's death he returns to the city to rule Israel. Before his peaceful death, he chooses his son Solomon as successor. He is honored in the prophetic literature as an ideal king and an ancestor of a future Messiah, and many psalms are ascribed to him.

Joseph • Joseph is an important figure in the Bible's Book of Genesis. Sold into slavery by his jealous brothers, he rose to become vizier, the second most powerful man in Egypt next to Pharaoh, where his presence and office caused Israel to leave Canaan and settle in Egypt. The composition of the story can be dated to the period between the 7 th century BCE and the third quarter of the 5 th century BCE, which is roughly the period to which scholars date the Book of Genesis. • In Rabbinic tradition, Joseph is considered the ancestor of another Messiah called, "Mashiach ben Yosef", according to which he will wage war against the evil forces alongside Mashiach ben David and die in combat with the enemies of God and Israel.

Moses • Moses was a prophet in the Abrahamic religions, according to their holy books; however, scholarly consensus sees Moses as a legendary figure and not a historical person. According to the Hebrew Bible, he was adopted by an Egyptian princess, and later in life became the leader of the Israelites and lawgiver, to whom the authorship of the Torah, or acquisition of the Torah from Heaven is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew ( משה רבנ lit. "Moses our Teacher"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism. He is also an important prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and a number of other Abrahamic religions. • According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when his people, the Israelites, an enslaved minority, were increasing in numbers and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might ally themselves with Egypt's enemies. Moses' Hebrew mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed in order to reduce the population of the Israelites. Through the Pharaoh's daughter (identified as Queen Bithia in the Midrash), the child was adopted as a foundling from the Nile River and grew up with the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slave-master (because the slave-master was smiting a Hebrew), Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian, where he encountered The Angel of the Lord, speaking to him from within a burning bush on Mount Horeb (which he regarded as the Mountain of God). • God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand the release of the Israelites from slavery. Moses said that he could not speak eloquently, so God allowed Aaron, his brother, to become his spokesperson. After the Ten Plagues, Moses led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt and across the Red Sea, after which they based themselves at Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten Commandments. After 40 years of wandering in the desert, Moses died within sight of the Promised Land on Mount Nebo.

Rites

Jewish Baby Rites Jewish baby rites • Like some other religions, Jewish baby rites differ for male and female babies. Circumcision or Brit Milah • Any child born to a Jewish mother is considered a Jew. A Jewish girl does not have to go through the same initiation ceremony as a baby boy. The Brit Milah (circumcision ceremony) is an important initiation rite for young Jewish boys. • Circumcision is a religious obligation on Jews recalling the covenant that God made with Abraham. Ordinarily circumcision ceremonies take place when the child is eight days old but it can be delayed for medical reasons. • The Brit Milah is usually attended by men. The child is placed on the lap of a male friend or relative who has the honor of being the Sandek. He has the responsibility of holding the child still whilst the circumcision is performed by a Mohel. Naming the baby • Baby boys are also given their names at their circumcisions; it is customary to keep the name a secret before the ceremony. • It is traditional for the child to receive his or her name at the first public gathering, so if the child is a girl, then she will be named at the first public reading of the Torah at the Synagogue. • There are other Jewish traditions but these are more to do with superstition than having any real religious significance; for example pregnant women must not visit cemeteries.

Jewish Wedding Rites • The rituals associated with Jewish weddings begin as soon as a couple are engaged, with a ceremony known as tena'im. It involves breaking a plate to symbolize the destruction of the temples in Jerusalem, as a reminder that even in the midst of celebration Jews still feel sadness for their loss. This is a theme that is repeated at the ceremony of itself with the breaking of the glass. • The wedding itself can be held on any day of the week apart from during the Jewish Sabbath, which runs from sunset on Friday until sunset on Saturday, or on major Jewish festivals such as the Day of Atonement or Jewish New Year (when Jews are required to refrain from work).

Jewish Wedding Rites (continued) The Wedding Day Fasting • It is also traditional for the bride and groom to fast on the day of the wedding itself as a symbolic statement. Just as Jews fast on Yom Kippur - the Day Of Atonement - to cleanse themselves of their sins and start afresh - so Jews fast on their wedding day to cleanse themselves of sin and come to their marriage with a clean slate. The ceremony • Although the ceremony has to be under a rabbi's supervision - as they will be familiar with all the laws and customs of the wedding - it does not necessarily have to be performed by a rabbi, as long as one is present. Most couples opt to have a rabbi conduct the ceremony, although it can be performed by a friend or family member, provided they have the permission of a rabbi. • The ceremony itself begins with the signing of the Ketubah - the Jewish marriage contract which sets out the legal terms of the marriage. The origins of the Ketubah go back to the days of the Sanhedrin - the Jewish Supreme Court - in Jerusalem a few thousand years ago - in order to protect the bride by the terms of her dowry. • The signing is done prior to the main ceremony and is in the presence of four witnesses and the officiator of the service. During the signing of the Ketubah, many men will sign an agreement saying that they will not contest a Get (Jewish divorce) in the event of the couple separating. This is significant for those Jewish women whose husbands refuse to give them a Get, meaning they are unable to remarry. • This is accompanied by a ceremony known as Bedecken (veiling), in which the bridegroom places the veil over the bride's face. This symbolizes the groom's intent to clothe and protect his wife, and dates back to Biblical times, when Rebekah covered her face before she married Abraham's son Isaac. • There is no rule as to what music can and cannot be played during the ceremony, although many couples feel uncomfortable playing music by Wagner (such as The Wedding March) due to his anti-Semitic viewpoints and popularity with Germany's Nazi party during the 1930 s and 1940 s. Most couples opt for traditional Jewish music to be played during the entrance of the bride and after the service - much of this is centuries old. • There is also no firm rule about who escorts the bride to the Chupa, but traditionally it is the bride's father who accompanies her (sometimes both parents will do so). The bride is the last person to enter, and upon reaching the Chupa will walk round the bridegroom several times this number varies. Some brides walk around their husband-to-be once while more Orthodox brides walk round seven times.

Subdivisions

Conservative Judaism The Conservative/Masorti movement practices traditional Judaism, but interprets Jewish teaching in the light of contemporary knowledge and scholarship. Conservative Judaism allows gradual change in law and practice, but only if the change is in harmony with Jewish tradition. The wish to embrace both tradition and change may seem admirable, but it is a very difficult one to live out since it's hard to develop a clear theology that can provide a consistent path between the two standpoints. The tendency has been to tackle each issue individually, rather than to embark on a global rethink. Core values Below is a list of Sacred Cluster of core values of Conservative Judaism (the commentary is editorial, not part of the original): • Centrality of Modern Israel: Conservative Jews regard Israel as not only the birthplace of the Jewish people, but also its final destiny. Their behavior reflects the wish of Conservative Judaism not to denationalize Judaism. • Hebrew - the irreplaceable language of Jewish expression: Hebrew literacy is the key to Judaism, to joining the conversation between sacred texts, between Jews of different ages, between God and Israel. • Devotion to the ideal of Klal Yisrael (the entire worldwide Jewish Community): This is the idea that the Jewish community is united worldwide and that every single Jew has ultimate significance. • The defining role of Torah in the reshaping of Judaism : For Conservative Jews, the Torah is no less sacred, if less central, than it was for their pre-modern ancestors. • Study of Torah: Modern Jews should study Torah in harmony with their mental world and not solely through the eyes of their ancestors. • Governance of Jewish Life by Halakhah (Jewish law): Halakhah is central and authoritative in determining the way of life and conduct of the Jewish people. • Belief in God

Liberal Judaism The movement has a strong intellectual tradition, and believes that Jewish texts should be reinterpreted in the light of modern scholarship and Jewish laws reassessed by their practical suitability to contemporary conditions. God is “One and indivisible, transcendent and immanent Creator and sustainer of the universe, Source of the Moral Law, a God of Justice and mercy who demands that human beings shall practice justice and mercy in their dealings with one another. ” Humanity is “created in the Divine Image, endowed with free will capable of sublime goodness but also of terrible evil, mortal yet with a sense of eternity, able to enter into a direct personal relationship with their Creator, and to restore that relationship when it is broken, through repentance (t'shuvah). The Bible and holy books: Liberal Jews don't believe that the Torah was written by God on tablets of stone and given to Moses. They believe it was written by human beings and should be responded to as such. Many Liberal Jews do acknowledge that much of the Torah was divinely inspired. The Messiah and the afterlife • Most Liberal Jews reject the idea of a personal Messiah at whose coming all the righteous dead would arise and live in unadulterated bliss and also reject the idea of physical resurrection. • There is no consensus on an afterlife.

Orthodox Judaism • A collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Written and Oral, as literally revealed by God on Mount Sinai and faithfully transmitted ever since. Other key doctrines include belief in a future resurrection of the dead, divine reward and punishment, the Election of Israel and an eventual restoration of the Temple in Jerusalem under the Messiah. Orthodox Judaism advocates a strict observance of Jewish Law, or Halakha, which is to be interpreted only according to received methods and canonical sources due to its divine origin. It regards the entire halakhic system as the unfolding and application of an immutable revelation, essentially beyond external and historical influence. • Orthodox Judaism is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between Ultra. Orthodox or "Haredi", which is more conservative, and Modern Orthodox Judaism which is relatively open to outer society.

Reform Judaism • Reform Judaism (also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism) is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of the faith, the superiority of its ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones, and a belief in a continuous revelation not centered on theophany at Mount Sinai. A liberal strand of Judaism, it is characterized by a lesser stress on ritual and personal observance, regarding Jewish Law as non-binding and the individual Jew as autonomous, and openness to external influences and progressive values. The origins of Reform Judaism lay in 19 th-century Germany, where its early principles were formulated by Rabbi Abraham Geiger and his associates; since the 1970 s, the movement adopted a policy of inclusiveness and acceptance, inviting as many as possible to partake in its communities, rather than theoretical clarity. Its greatest center today is in North America.

Humanistic Judaism doesn't proclaim that there is no God, but it does do without God. It sees no evidence for the existence of a supernatural being. Most Humanistic Jews regard the question of God's existence as either meaningless, or irrelevant. Humanistic Judaism is nontheistic and based on two principles: • Judaism is more than a religion; it is the culture of the Jewish people. • The source of power for solving human problems lies within human beings. So Humanistic Jews regard Judaism as an ethnic culture that was created by the Jewish people and shaped by Jewish experience. It did not fall from heaven, and no supernatural being had anything to do with it.

Modern Orthodoxy • Modern Orthodoxy (or Modern Orthodox) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law, with the secular, modern world. • Modern Orthodoxy draws on several teachings and philosophies, and thus assumes various forms. In the United States, and generally in the Western world, "Centrist Orthodoxy" – underpinned by the philosophy of Torah Umadda ("Torah and [Scientific] Knowledge") – is prevalent. In Israel, Modern Orthodoxy is dominated by Religious Zionism; however, although not identical, these movements share many of the same values and many of the same adherents.

Reconstructionist Judaism • Reconstructionist Judaism is an American Jewish denomination founded in the last century that seeks to unite Jewish history, tradition, culture and belief with modern scientific knowledge and the way people live today. • Reconstructionism is particularly suited to meet the needs of people with a scientific turn of mind as well as a strong spiritual sense since it takes the supernatural elements out of religion. • Judaism is more than a religion; it is an evolving religious civilization. It is that characterizes Jewish people, rather than their core beliefs. • Judaism is therefore the creation of the Jewish people themselves, not of God. • Judaism changes throughout history: the past "has a vote, not a veto” • A supernatural understanding of God (and of heavenly salvation) is misguided • Jews are not a 'chosen people‘ • Judaism should be inclusive • The driving force behind Judaism is belonging rather than believing • Judaism and working for social justice are inseparable • The State of Israel is vital to Jewish cultural and spiritual survival

Texts

The Talmud • The Talmud is the comprehensive written version of the Jewish oral law and the subsequent commentaries on it. It originates from the 2 nd century CE. The word Talmud is derived from the Hebrew verb 'to teach', which can also be expressed as the verb 'to learn'. • The Talmud is the source from which the code of Jewish Halakhah (law) is derived. It is made up of the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Mishnah is the original written version of the oral law and the Gemara is the record of the rabbinic discussions following this writing down. It includes their differences of view. • The Talmud can also be known by the name Shas. This is a Hebrew abbreviation for the expression Shishah Sedarim or the six orders of the Mishnah.

The Torah • The Torah is the first part of the Jewish bible. It is the central and most important document of Judaism and has been used by Jews through the ages. • Torah refers to the five books of Moses which are known in Hebrew as Chameesha Choomshey Torah. These are: Bresheit (Genesis), Shemot (Exodus), Vayicra (Leviticus), Bamidbar (Numbers), and Devarim (Deuteronomy). • Jews believe that God dictated the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai 50 days after their exodus from Egyptian slavery. They believe that the Torah shows how God wants Jews to live. It contains 613 commandments and Jews refer to the ten best known of these as the ten 10 statements. • The Torah is written in Hebrew, the oldest of Jewish languages. It is also known as Torat Moshe, the Law of Moses. The Torah is the first section or first five books of the Jewish bible. However, Tanach is more commonly used to describe the whole of Jewish scriptures. This is an acronym made up from the first letter of the words Torah, Nevi im (prophets), and Ketuvim (writings). • Similarly, the term Torah is sometimes used in a more general sense to incorporate Judaism’s written and oral law. This definition encompasses Jewish scripture in its entirety including all authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history. • The word Torah has various meanings in English. These include: teaching, instruction and law. For Jews the Torah means all of these.