NCAT 2 nd Annual Redesign Alliance Conference Orlando

NCAT 2 nd Annual Redesign Alliance Conference Orlando, FL March, 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. THE NATIONAL CONTEXT FOR COURSE REDESIGN: Why We Need to Improve Access and Success in Higher Education

Over past 25 years, we’ve made a lot of progress on the access side. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Immediate College-Going Up Recent High School Graduates 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Digest of Education Statistics 2002 (2003), Table 183 AND U. S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey Report, October 2002.

Most High School Grads Go On To Postsecondary Within 2 Years 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: NELS: 88, Second (1992) and Third (1994) Follow up; in, USDOE, NCES, “Access to Postsecondary Education for the 1992 High School Graduates”, 1998, Table 2.

College-going up for all groups. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

College-Going Increasing for Recent* High School Grads at All Income Levels **Due to small sample sizes, 3 -year averages used for Low-income category Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education, 2006, Table 29 -1, http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 29. asp 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. * Percent of high school completers who were enrolled in college the October after completing high school

Immediate* College-Going Increasing for All Racial/Ethnic Groups: 1980 to 2005 Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education, 2006, Table 29 -1, http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 29. asp 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. * Percent of high school completers who were enrolled in college the October after completing high school

But though college-going up for minorities, gains among whites have been greater 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

All Groups Up In College-Going from 1980 -2005, But Gaps Also Increase 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: U. S. Department of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education 2006.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. And though college going up for low-income students, they still haven’t reached rate of high income students in mid-seventies.

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Highest Achieving Low-Income Students Attend Postsecondary at Same Rate as Bottom Achieving High Income Students 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: NELS: 88, Second (1992) and Third Follow up (1994); in, USDOE, NCES Condition of Education 1997 p. 64

But access isn’t the only issue: 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. There’s a question of access to what…

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2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. And what about graduation?

Black and Latino Freshmen Complete College at Lower Rates (6 Year Rates; All 4 -Year Institutions) Overall rate: 55% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: U. S. DOE, NCES, 1995 -96 Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, Second Follow. Up (BPS: 96/01) in U. S. DOE, NCES, Descriptive Summary of 1995 -96 Beginning Postsecondary Students: Six Years Later. Table 7 -6 on page 163.

And from 2 -year institutions? 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Lower still.

California Community Colleges: Success Rates for Degree-Bound Freshmen* 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Shulock, Nancy. Excludes students who did not complete at least 10 credits. Success defined as obtaining Associates Degree or transferring to a 4 -year institution.

The result? 2008 by The Education Trust, Increases in college completion not commensurate with increases in college going.

College Going vs. Completion of BA or Higher, White +19 +10 Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education, 2006, Tables 29 -1 and 31 -3 http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 29. asp , http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 31. asp 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • Immediate College-going refers to the percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in college the October after completing high school. Percent attaining their BA refers to the percentage of 25 -29 year-olds with a BA or higher

College Going vs. Completion of BA or Higher, African American +20 +5. 5 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • Immediate College-going refers to the percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in college the October after completing high school. Percent attaining their BA refers to the percentage of 25 -29 year-olds with a BA or higher Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education, 2006, Tables 29 -1 and 31 -3 http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 29. asp , http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 31. asp

College Going vs. Completion of BA or Higher, Latino +10 • Immediate College-going refers to the percentage of high school completers who were enrolled in college the October after completing high school. Percent attaining their BA refers to the percentage of 25 -29 year-olds with a BA or higher Source: U. S. Dept. of Education, NCES, The Condition of Education, 2006, Tables 29 -1 and 31 -3 http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 29. asp , http: //nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2006/section 3/indicator 31. asp 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. +3. 3

Add it all up… 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Different groups of young Americans obtain degrees at very different rates. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Some Americans Are Much Less Likely to Graduate From College 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Some Americans Are Much Less Likely to Graduate From College: B. A. Rates by Age 24 Source: “Family Income and Higher Education Opportunity 1970 to 2003, ” in Postsecondary Education Opportunity, Number 156, June 2005. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. SES is a weighted variable developed by NCES, which includes parental education levels and occupations and family income. “High” and “low” refer to the highest and lowest quartiles of SES.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. These gaps threaten the health of our democracy. But they are also especially worrisome given which groups are growing…and which aren’t.

There is Rapid Growth Among Groups Who Already Are Under-Represented 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: U. S. Census Bureau, Population Projections

Not surprisingly, our international lead is slipping away 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. We’re still relatively strong (although no longer in the lead) with all adults.

U. S. : 3 rd Out of 30 Industrialized Nations in Overall Postsecondary Degree Attainment (B. A. & A. A. ) United States (38%) 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: 2007 OECD Education at a Glance, www. oecd. org/edu/eag 2007. Note: data is for 2005.

But the U. S. is 9 th out of 30 countries in the percentage of younger workers with A. A. degree or higher United States (39%) 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: 2007 OECD Education at a Glance, www. oecd. org/edu/eag 2007. Note: data is for 2005.

. . . and the U. S. is one of only two countries where there is no increase in college attainment among younger workers. Source: 2007 OECD Education at a Glance, www. oecd. org/edu/eag 2007. Note: data is for 2005. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. United States (0)

To reach top performing countries 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: 2007 OECD Education at a Glance, www. oecd. org/edu/eag 2007. Note: data is for 2005.

WHAT’S GOING ON? 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Many in higher education would like to believe that this is mostly about lousy high schools and stingy federal and state policymakers.

They are not all wrong. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Low Income and Minority Students Continue to be Clustered in Schools where we spend less…

Nation: Inequities in State and Local Revenue Per Student Gap -$907 per student High Minority vs. Low Minority Districts -$614 per student Source: The Education Trust, The Funding Gap 2005. Data are for 2003 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. High Poverty vs. Low Poverty Districts

…expect less 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Students in Poor Schools Receive ‘A’s for Work That Would Earn ‘Cs’ in Affluent Schools 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: Prospects (ABT Associates, 1993), in “Prospects: Final Report on Student Outcomes”, PES, DOE, 1997.

…teach them less 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Fewer Latino students are enrolled in Algebra 2 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: CCSSO, State Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education, 2001

Full College Prep track is defined as at least: 4 years of English, 3 years of math, 2 years of natural science, 2 years of social science and 2 years of foreign language Source: Jay P. Greene, Public High School Graduation and College Readiness Rates in the United States, Manhattan Institute, September 2003. Table 8. 2001 high school graduates with college-prep curriculum. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. percent in college prep African American, Latino & Native American high school graduates are less likely to have been enrolled in a full college prep track

…and assign them our least qualified teachers. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

More Classes in High-Poverty, High-Minority Schools Taught By Out-of-Field Teachers High minority Low minority Note: High Poverty school-50% or more of the students are eligible for free/reduced price lunch. Low-poverty school -15% or fewer of the students are eligible for free/reduced price lunch. High-minority school - 50% or more of the students are nonwhite. Low-minority school- 15% or fewer of the students are nonwhite. *Teachers lacking a college major or minor in the field. Data for secondary-level core academic classes. Source: Richard M. Ingersoll, University of Pennsylvania. Original analysis for the Ed Trust of 1999 -2000 Schools and Staffing Survey. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. High poverty Low poverty

Poor and Minority Students Get More Inexperienced* Teachers High minority Low minority *Teachers with 3 or fewer years of experience. Note: High poverty refers to the top quartile of schools with students eligible for free/reduced price lunch. Low povertybottom quartile of schools with students eligible for free/reduced price lunch. High minority-top quartile; those schools with the highest concentrations of minority students. Low minority-bottom quartile of schools with the lowest concentrations of minority students Source: National Center for Education Statistics, “Monitoring Quality: An Indicators Report, ” December 2000. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. High poverty Low poverty

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. While we’re making some progress in addressing these problems in elementary schools…

NAEP Reading, 9 Year-Olds: Record Performance for All Groups Source: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 2004 Trends in Academic Progress 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: Long-Term Trends NAEP

NAEP Math, 9 Year-Olds: Record Performance for All Groups Source: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 2004 Trends in Academic Progress 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: Long-Term Trends NAEP

We have not yet turned the corner in our high schools. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Gaps between groups are wider today than they were in 1990.

NAEP Reading, 17 Year-Olds 21 Source: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 2004 Trends in Academic Progress 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: Long-Term Trends NAEP 29

NAEP Math, 17 Year-Olds 20 Source: National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 2004 Trends in Academic Progress 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: Long-Term Trends NAEP 28

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. And no matter how you cut the data, our performance relative to other countries isn’t much to brag about.

US 15 Year-Olds Rank Near Middle Of The Pack Among 32 Participating Countries: 1999 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

PISA 2003: US 15 Year-Olds Rank Near The End Of The Pack Among 29 OECD Countries 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: NCES, 2005, International Outcomes of Learning in Mathematics, Literacy and Problem Solving: 2003 PISA Results. NCES 2005 -003

2003: U. S. Ranked 24 th out of 29 OECD Countries in Mathematics 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), PISA 2003 Results, data available at http: //www. oecd. org/

U. S. Ranks Low in the Percent of Students in the Highest Achievement Level (Level 6) in Math 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), PISA 2003 Results, data available at http: //www. oecd. org/

U. S. Ranks 23 rd out of 29 OECD Countries in the Math Achievement of the Highest. Performing Students* Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), PISA 2003 Results, data available at http: //www. oecd. org/ 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. * Students at the 95 th Percentile

U. S. Ranks 23 rd out of 29 OECD Countries in the Math Achievement of High-SES Students 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), PISA 2003 Results, data available at http: //www. oecd. org/

Even in problem-solving, something we consider an American strength… 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

PISA 2003: Problem-Solving, US Ranks 24 th Out of 29 OECD Countries 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: NCES, 2005, International Outcomes of Learning in Mathematics, Literacy and Problem Solving: 2003 PISA Results. NCES 2005 -003

So yes, preparation is part of the problem. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

And so is government support for financial aid. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Both the federal government and state governments have shifted more and more of their aid resources toward more affluent students.

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Maximum Pell Grant Coverage of Cost of College 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

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But colleges and universities are not unimportant actors in this drama of shrinking opportunity, either. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. .

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. For one thing, the shifts away from poor students in institutional aid money are MORE PRONOUNCED than the shifts in government aid.

Students from Families with Income < $40, 000, 1995: 56% of Institutional Aid, 38% of students on Public 4 -Year Campuses Source: National Postsecondary Student Aid, (2003 -2004) data analysis conducted by Jerry Davis for the Education Trust 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: These numbers reflect outcomes students in four-year public colleges.

By 2003, Aid and Enrollment Had Declined For Students from Family Income < $40, 000 Source: National Postsecondary Student Aid, (2003 -2004) data analysis conducted by Jerry Davis for the Education Trust 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Note: These figures are for students in four-year public colleges.

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2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Today? Fully 60% of the institutional aid granted by 4 -year public colleges and universities goes to students with NO financial need.

These patterns hold even for our most prestigious public universities. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Flagships and other Public Research Extensive Universities

They could choose to cushion the effects of increased cost on poor students. But they don’t. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Flagships spend more money on aid than their students receive from either federal or state sources.

Big increases in spending on high income students 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Typical institutional grant recipient in lowincome family now gets LESS than typical grant recipient in high income family 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

So it’s not all about the students. What colleges do is important. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Moreover, what colleges do also turns out to be very important in whether students graduate or not. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Current College Completion Rates: 4 -Year Colleges • Approximately 4 in 10 entering freshmen obtain a Bachelor’s degree within 4 years; • Within six years of entry, that proportion rises to about 6 in 10. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

But graduation rates vary widely across the nation’s postsecondary institutions 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Some of these differences are clearly attributable to differences in student preparation and/or institutional mission. But not all…

Some colleges are far more successful than their students’ “stats” would suggest. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Doc/Research Institutions With Similar Students Getting Different Results Median Size SAT % Pell Overall 6 White/URM Yr-Grad Rate Gap 1195 33, 975 19% 83% -14% Univ of Wisconsin Texas A&M Univ of Washington Univ of Minnesota 1240 27, 711 12% 76% -21% 1185 33, 901 14% 75% -9% 1185 25, 059 21% 71% -11% 1145 28, 273 16% 54% -19% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Penn State

Masters Level Institutions With Similar Students Getting Different Results Median SAT % Pell Overall 6 Yr-Grad Rate URM 6 -Yr Grad Rate 1055 6369 19% 66% 46% 1045 5130 33% 59% 52% 1010 5043 27% 53% 44% 1010 7831 32% 45% 38% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Millersville U of PA SUNY at Plattsburgh NW MO State Northern Michigan U Size

Bac General/Masters Institutions With Similar Students Getting Different Results % Pell Overall 6 Yr-Grad Rate URM 6 -Yr Grad Rate 810 2039 60% 51% 54% 825 1827 49% 39% 44% 865 3820 55% 38% 39% 775 2918 68% 31% 875 2691 57% 22% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Elizabeth City (NC) Kentucky State Fayetteville State (NC) U of Ark Pine Bluff Coppin State (MD) Median Size SAT

College Results Online 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Bottom Line: • So yes, we have to keep working to improve our high schools; • But we’ve got to focus on improving our colleges, too. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

What can we do? Several high-leverage places to focus 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

First, let’s be clear: improving high schools is hugely important. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Far too many of our high schools —especially those serving concentrations of poor and minority students—don’t prepare their students for much of anything.

But let us also be clear that it doesn’t have to be that way. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Some schools serving exactly the same students manage to produce much, much higher achievement.

Elmont Memorial Junior-Senior High School 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Elmont Memorial Junior-Senior High School Elmont, New York • 1, 966 Students in Grades 7 -12 • 75% African American • 12% Latino 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: New York State School Report Card, http: //www. emsc. nysed. gov/irts/reportcard/

Elmont Memorial Higher Percentage of Students Meeting Graduation Requirements than the State, Class of 2004 Regents English 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: New York State School Report Card, http: //www. emsc. nysed. gov/irts/reportcard/

Elmont Memorial Higher Percentage of Students Meeting Graduation Requirements than the State, Class of 2004 Regents Math 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Source: New York State School Report Card, http: //www. emsc. nysed. gov/irts/reportcard/

University Park Campus School 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

University Park Campus School Worcester, Massachusetts 220 Students in Grades 7 -12 9% African American 18% Asian 35% Latino 39% White 73% Low-Income Source: Massachusetts Department of Education School Profile, http: //profiles. doe. mass. edu/ 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • • •

University Park Results: 2004 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • 100% of 10 th graders passed MA high school exit exam on first attempt. • 87% passed at advanced or proficient level. • Fifth most successful school in the state, surpassing many schools serving wealthy students.

These schools, however, exceptions. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. We need them to be the rule.

Work on aligning standards, assessments and high school course requirements matters a lot. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. More than half of all states now headed down this path with the American Diploma Project.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. But everybody in this room knows that policy alignment is only the first—and perhaps the easiest—step.

To get students to these standards, teachers will need: 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • Robust curriculum materials; • Help designing powerful units, assignments; • Help mastering the array of teaching strategies necessary to get all learners to much higher standards; • Better data on how their students are doing along the way.

College faculty: great partners in this work. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

What to do on the higher education side? 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Six suggestions.

1. Get folks engaged in looking at their data. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Yes, the numbers will often suggest the need for better preparation. But they will also typically show that we’re not doing so well even by the students who meet our definition of “prepared. ”

NASH/Ed. Trust Math Success Initiative 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. 9 Systems Analyzing Data on Student Success in Math Courses

Participating Systems • Kentucky Council on Postsecondary Ed • University of Louisiana System • Mississippi Institutions of Higher Learning • Nevada System of Higher Education 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • State Univ System of Florida • University System of Georgia • University of Hawaii System • Purdue University • State University of New York

Some Initial Findings 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • Large D, F, W rates in both remedial and first several credit-bearing courses; • Large numbers of NON-remedial students not successful, even those who test into Calculus. • Preparation matters. Students who have higher ACT math subscores, for example, more likely to be successful. BUT prep levels only explain a small part of success (ACT around one-third; SAT even less). • Math coursework taken during senior year important. But many students taking courses below Algebra 1. • In many cases, students who test as non-ready have success rates in non-remedial courses equal to those in the remedial courses designed for them. (California Community Colleges, too. ) • Wide differences in these rates even among comparable institutions.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Much more to learn—including how big the differences are among faculty members teaching different sections of same course-but clear indicators for action.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. 2. Do a close analysis of student progression through your institutions and ACT on what you learn.

Conclusion: Student who take those courses immediately on entry are much more likely to succeed. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Two states in our network—KY and NV—have done such analyses, focused specifically on students with developmental needs.

Both now have new policies. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

By adding just a few sections, unblocked clogged arteries…and student success went up. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. University of Northern Iowa “Path Analysis”: Not enough sections of key courses.

#3. Learn from the high performers. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Should be looking at the data by faculty member, as well, and working to understand teaching practices that work. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Almost every system and/or state has found some campuses that get better results. Important to understand what they are doing.

4. Take on introductory courses. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

Drop-Failure-Withdrawal Rates Mathematics Georgia State U Louisiana State U Rio CC U of Alabama U of Missouri-SL UNC-Greensboro UNC-Chapel Hill Wayne State U Source: National Center for Academic Transformation 45% 36% 41% 60% 50% 77% 19% 61% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • •

Drop-Failure-Withdrawal Rates Other Disciplines Calhoun CC Chattanooga State Drexel U IUPUI SW MN State U Tallahassee CC U of Iowa U of New Mexico U of S Maine UNC-Greensboro Source: National Center for Academic Transformation Statistics Psychology Computing Sociology Biology English Comp Chemistry Psychology Statistics 35% 37% 51% 39% 37% 46% 25% 39% 28% 70% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • • •

Of course, some of this may be about preparation. But clearly not all… 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

College Algebra Course Redesign: UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA SUCCESS RATES • 47. 1% • 40. 6% • • • Fall 2000 Fall 2001 Fall 2002 Fall 2003 Fall 2004 50. 2% 60. 5% 63. 0% 78. 9% 76. 2% 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. • Fall 1998 • Fall 1999

Also, totally eliminated black/white gap in course outcomes. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Same students. Same preparation. Different results.

#5. Set some stretch goals. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc.

A lot of systems, campuses don’t set goals. At best, report increases or decreases. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Those numbers can be seriously misleading. But they also don’t inspire or engage.

Goal? By 2015 to reduce by at least half the gaps in college going and college success that separate low-income students and students of color from others. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. New NASH/Ed. Trust Access to Success Initiative: One example of an effort to set serious stretch goals, measure and report progress over time.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. #6. Finally, what about rethinking how we use our institutional aid dollars (even as we work to increase state and federal investments in need-based aid)?

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Over the past few decades, role of higher education has been transformed from agent of opportunity and mobility, to another agent of stratification.

Sadly, even the colleges created to expand opportunity…don’t always do that. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Illinois data: most of the students transferring from 2 - to 4 -year colleges were “ready” for those colleges as high school seniors!

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Perhaps not surprising, given the relentless march of privilege in our society and the tendency of privileged people to demand ever more.

But…that’s not why most of us in higher education got into this business. 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Somehow, we’ve got to find a way to refocus our energies and our resources.

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. When our resources aren’t adequate to begin with, that requires a lot of very tough choices…

2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. But acknowledging that the choices are tough is not the same as suggesting that we shouldn’t make them.

The Education Trust 2008 by The Education Trust, Inc. Download this Presentation And Subscribe to Equity Express www. edtrust. org Washington, DC: 202 -293 -1217 Oakland, CA: 510 -465 -6444