The Geography of Language Language is not an

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The Geography of Language “Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or

The Geography of Language “Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ” Noah Webster (1758 -1843) 1

2 Language is… • Language is Universal – No group of people anywhere has

2 Language is… • Language is Universal – No group of people anywhere has ever been found that does not have a spoken language. • Many languages do not have a written form. • There are occasional physically normal individuals, “wolf children, ” who have no language at all – but they’re rare. • Language is Fundamental – Language is crucial for social interaction, and to express complex emotions and ideas. – Language lets us deal with – and try to control – the world around us: • Naming • Faith, magic and the supernatural – Language is fundamental to who we are – our identity.

3 • A language family is a group of languages which are descended from

3 • A language family is a group of languages which are descended from a single common ancestor language.

4 The Indo-European family

4 The Indo-European family

5 Language families contain… • Branches – “a collection of languages related through a

5 Language families contain… • Branches – “a collection of languages related through a common ancestor several thousand years ago. Differences are not as extensive or as old as with language families. ” – Example: Indo-European has eight (surviving) branches: Germanic, Romance, Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Albanian, Armenian, and Celtic. • Groups – “a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary” – Example: English is a language in the West Germanic Group.

6 Language >> Group >> Branch >> Family Indo. European Family Germanic Branch West

6 Language >> Group >> Branch >> Family Indo. European Family Germanic Branch West Germanic Group English

7 The major language families (families with more than 100, 000 speakers) 1. Indo-European

7 The major language families (families with more than 100, 000 speakers) 1. Indo-European [ex: English, Russian, Farsi, Hindi] About 3 billion speakers; originally Europe-Asia, now worldwide 2. Sino-Tibetan [ex: Chinese, Tibetan] About 1. 5 billion speakers; mostly in China and surrounding areas. 3. Afro-Asiatic (also called “Hamitic-Semitic”) [ex: Arabic, Hebrew] About ½ billion speakers; mostly in North Africa and Southwest Asia. 4. Austronesian (also called “Malayo-Polynesian”) [ex: Hawaiian, Malagasy] More than ¼ billion speakers; Pacific Ocean to Madagascar. 5. Dravidian [ex. Tamil, Malayalam] About ¼ billion speakers; Southern India, Sri Lanka. 6. Niger-Congo [ex. Swahili, Yoruba] About 200, 000 speakers; Sub-Saharan Africa. 7. Altaic [ex. Turkish, Mongol] About 200, 000 speakers; Turkey to Mongolia. 8. Japanese [ex. Japanese!] About 125, 000 speakers; Japan. Add it up – these 8 families account for nearly 90% of humanity.

8 Seeing Families • • • • One, two, three Eins, zwei, drei Einn,

8 Seeing Families • • • • One, two, three Eins, zwei, drei Einn, tveir, þrír Uno, dos, tres Uno, due, tre Unu, doi, trei Amháin, dhá, trí Un, dau, tri Jedan, dva, tri Jeden, dwa, trzy Üks, kaks, kolm Yksi, kaksi, kolme Bat, bi, hiru Indo-European, Germanic (English) Indo-European, Germanic (German) Indo-European, Germanic (Icelandic) Indo-European, Romance (Spanish) Indo-European, Romance (Italian) Indo-European, Romance (Romanian) Indo-European, Celtic (Welsh) Indo-European, Celtic (Irish) Indo-European, Slavic (Czech) Indo-European, Slavic (Polish) Uralic (Estonian) Uralic (Finnish) ? ? ? (Basque)

9 The movement of languages • Throughout history, most languages have spread by relocation

9 The movement of languages • Throughout history, most languages have spread by relocation diffusion. • A few languages – including Chinese, Latin, French and English – have also spread by expansion diffusion. • Barriers to expansion may be either physical or cultural.

10 The world’s top ten languages • By Mother Tongue (first language) • By

10 The world’s top ten languages • By Mother Tongue (first language) • By Official Status

11 The English-speaking world today

11 The English-speaking world today

12 The pleasures and perils of English • Pleasures – – Most widely spoken

12 The pleasures and perils of English • Pleasures – – Most widely spoken language; global dominance of media, internet. No gender, number or case changes; easy formation of plurals. Relatively simple verb forms (most of the time!) Huge, flexible vocabulary. • Perils – – Idiomatic verb and preposition combinations (“put up, ” “get down”) Irregular plurals (ox & oxen; foot & feet, sheep & sheep etc. ) Spelling Bizarre written forms: • “Though the rough cough and hiccough plough me through, I ought to cross the lough. ” – No rules for pronunciation and stress; many homonyms • Polish vs. polish; dove vs. dove; to, too, two; there, their, they’re

13 Languages, dialects, accents • Standard Language: Accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation.

13 Languages, dialects, accents • Standard Language: Accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation. • Dialect: A recognizable speech variant. • Accent: A distinctive way of speaking typical of a group or a region. Accents can be distinctive in terms of: • Pronunciation • Tone • Inflection • Word choice

14 Drawing dialect boundaries: isoglosses • Isoglosses are a kind of isoline – in

14 Drawing dialect boundaries: isoglosses • Isoglosses are a kind of isoline – in this case, they are word-usage boundaries. • Ideally, researchers go out, ask people what words they use for common things, draw dots on a map, draw lines around the dots, and define boundaries between different dialects. • That’s the ideal. In reality, it’s much messier. • Care to guess what these different colored dots represent terms for? • These are all local words for “dragonfly!”

15 Dialects of English • In England, there are still at least three main

15 Dialects of English • In England, there are still at least three main dialect groups: – NORTHERN – MIDLAND – SOUTHERN Note the isoglosses

16 American dialects • In the US – Isolation (physical and political) created differences

16 American dialects • In the US – Isolation (physical and political) created differences in vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. – Today, US dialects are most pronounced in the East, and there at least three main groups: • NORTHERN • MIDLAND • SOUTHERN Note the major and minor isoglosses

17 US regional variations

17 US regional variations

18 Official English? No, but … ‘English Language Empowerment Act of 1996’. The Congress

18 Official English? No, but … ‘English Language Empowerment Act of 1996’. The Congress finds and declares the following: (1) The United States is comprised of individuals and groups from diverse ethnic, cultural and linguistic backgrounds. (3) Throughout the history of the United States, the common thread binding individuals of differing backgrounds has been a common language. (4) In order to preserve unity in diversity, and to prevent division along linguistic lines, the Federal Government should maintain a language common to all people. (9) English should be recognized in law as the language of official business of the Federal Government. Excerpts from HR 123, July 30, 1996 (Available http: //ftp. loc. gov/pub/thomas/c 104/h 123. rh. txt)

19 The urge to understand • Mixing languages : Languages that are in contact

19 The urge to understand • Mixing languages : Languages that are in contact often begin to blend together (pidgins, creoles, “Franglais, ” “Spanglish, ” etc. ). • Lingua franca: A major language used over a large area for commerce and diplomacy (Latin, English, etc. ). • Multilingualism: Knowing and using more than one language. • Translation and interpretation: – Translation: Words and concepts expressed in one language are rendered more-or-less faithfully in another. – Interpretation: A less literal translation, emphasizing overall meaning.

20 Pidgins and creoles • Pidgin: A system of communication developed among people who

20 Pidgins and creoles • Pidgin: A system of communication developed among people who do not share a common language but need to talk for trading or other reasons. – Pidgins usually have: • • Limited vocabulary Simplified grammatical structure Narrow range of functions, expressions Short useful lifespan – “Nobody’s native language” • Creole: A language created by blending elements of two or more other languages; “a pidgin which has become a native language. ”

21 Lingua franca • A “lingua franca” (either from “language of the Franks” or

21 Lingua franca • A “lingua franca” (either from “language of the Franks” or from “free language”) is any widelyused language used for commerce, diplomacy, science and technology. • Lingua francas are often second languages, and may be a mixture of several languages. • Historically, a number of languages have served as lingua franca: – Koine Greek (ancient Eastern Mediterranean) – Swahili (Eastern Africa) – French (international diplomacy) – English (science, commerce, travel)

22 Multilingualism • Most of the world’s population is at least somewhat multilingual –

22 Multilingualism • Most of the world’s population is at least somewhat multilingual – that is, most people have at least some knowledge of more than one language. • Some nations are officially multilingual: – Paraguay (Spanish, Guarani) – Switzerland (German, French, Italian, Romansch) – South Africa (Isi. Zulu, Isi. Xhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, English, Setswana, Sesotho, Xitsonga, si. Swati, Tshivenda, and isi. Ndebele. ) – India (Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Sanskrit; also English and Hindustani) Sources: http: //goeurope. about. com/library/bl_switzerland_resources. htm; http: //www. cia. gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2098. html

23 Preserving language diversity • Languages can die. Today, in the face of the

23 Preserving language diversity • Languages can die. Today, in the face of the global dominance of English and other “world languages, ” some people are trying to preserve and even revive languages. – Maintaining survivors: Celtic languages (Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic, Welsh (Cymru), Breton. – Bringing back the dead: Hebrew. • Why bother? Because language is about more than just “communicating facts. ” Language is about identity, history, continuity – language is a fundamental part of who you are.

24 Linguistic refuge areas • Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they

24 Linguistic refuge areas • Languages and dialects survive in some areas because they are isolated and protected by inhospitable terrain. – Example: Cajun, a form of French which survives in Louisiana’s bayou country. – Example: Abaza, Avar, Bats, Chechen, and perhaps 36 other languages that survive in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas. The Caucasian patchwork

25 Language and culture: toponyms • Toponyms (or places names) tell us about history

25 Language and culture: toponyms • Toponyms (or places names) tell us about history and the movements peoples and cultures. • All inhabited places have names. • Toponyms often have a structure: generic + specific (Cape Town, Oklahoma City, etc. ). • Types of toponyms: – Commemorative (explorers; famous people; other places). – Natural features (Colorado, Florida, Long Beach). – Special Sites (military; religious; historical). – Other: • • Animals & Plants (Chicken AK, Redwood City CA). Inherited (Minnetonka MN, Mojave CA). Humor (Truth or Consequences NM, No-Name Island AK). Miscellaneous and uncertain (Oregon, Rhode Island).

26 Why study Religion? • Geographers study religion because it is an essential part

26 Why study Religion? • Geographers study religion because it is an essential part of how people live and interact with each other and with their environment. • Religion has several geographic aspects: q. Religion is fundamental to many different cultures. q. Religions vary in their distributions: some are widespread; others are very limited in distribution. q. Religions are important in the organization of space. q. Many religions require active participation or loyalty; adopting one religion often means giving up all others (and adopting new customs or way of life). q. Religions may spread by both relocation and expansion diffusion.

27 Religion, Culture, and Taboos • Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of

27 Religion, Culture, and Taboos • Religion directly and indirectly affects many aspects of culture: – – – Food, drink, housing and architecture Occupations and economics Laws, customs and politics Relations between men and women Birth and death Land landscape

28 food & drink: dry counties • The relationship between Baptist/Methodist areas and “dry”

28 food & drink: dry counties • The relationship between Baptist/Methodist areas and “dry” counties (counties where alcohol sales are restricted or forbidden) is striking.

29 Monotheism vs. Polytheism • In a monotheistic religion there is only one God.

29 Monotheism vs. Polytheism • In a monotheistic religion there is only one God. – Judaism, Christianity, Islam • In a polytheistic religion there can be many Gods. • In animism there may or may not be “gods” as such; the whole world is “animated. ”

30 Universalizing vs. Ethnic • Universalizing religions seek out new members – generally speaking,

30 Universalizing vs. Ethnic • Universalizing religions seek out new members – generally speaking, anybody can become a member. – Christianity, Islam • Ethnic religions are usually the faiths of particular ethnic groups. Generally speaking, they don’t want new members (and sometimes they forbid it – no outsiders allowed). – Judaism,

31 Hearths • Religions, like other elements of culture, develop in hearths – centers

31 Hearths • Religions, like other elements of culture, develop in hearths – centers from which they may diffuse. • We can identify three major religious hearths: – The Middle East Hearth (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) – The Northern India Hearth (Hinduism, Buddhism) – The East Asia Hearth (Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism) Source: http: //www. wadsworth. com/religion_d/special_features/popups/maps/schmidt_patterns/content/map_00. html

32 Basic beliefs of Judaism • God is the creator of all that exists;

32 Basic beliefs of Judaism • God is the creator of all that exists; He is incorporeal and is to be worshipped as absolute ruler of the universe. • The Jews are God's chosen people. • God has communicated to the Jewish people through prophets. • God monitors people’s activities; He rewards good deeds punishes evil. • Judaism affirms the inherent goodness of the world and its people as creations of God. • The 613 commandments found in Leviticus and the other books of the Bible regulate all aspects of Jewish life; The Ten Commandments are a brief synopsis of the Law. • The Messiah will arrive in the future and gather Jews once more into the land of Israel. There will be a general resurrection of the dead at that time. The Jerusalem Temple, destroyed in 70 CE, will be rebuilt.

33 Basic beliefs of Christianity • Enormous variation among different sects as to what

33 Basic beliefs of Christianity • Enormous variation among different sects as to what it takes to be a Christian. • Some areas of general agreement: – Belief in God. – Belief in Jesus, virgin birth, Jesus’ sacrifice, possibility of universal salvation. – Importance of baptism. – Importance of the church (community of believers). – Belief in prayer.

34 Branches of Christianity • There are three main branches of Christianity: – Roman

34 Branches of Christianity • There are three main branches of Christianity: – Roman Catholic • About 50% of all Christians; over one billion people. • Dominant in Western and parts of Eastern Europe, Latin America, parts of Africa and Southeast Asia. – Protestantism • About 24% of all Christians. • Dominant in Northern Europe, North America, Australia and parts of Africa. – Eastern Orthodox • About 11% of all Christians. • Dominant in Eastern Europe, Russia, and in parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. • There also several other Christian groups (Coptic Church, Ethiopian Church, Armenian Church, etc. ) that are usually included in the Eastern Orthodox group. – “Other” Christians • About 15% of all Christians. • Huge variety of denominations, including Oriental Orthodox Churches, Christadelphians, Mormons, Nestorians, Unitarians, Swedenborgians, etc.

35 “Muslim” ≠ “Arab” • Just to clear up a potential source of confusion

35 “Muslim” ≠ “Arab” • Just to clear up a potential source of confusion – “Arab” is an ethnicity; “Muslim” is a believer in Islam. • About 90% of all Arabs are Muslims. • But 80% of all Muslims are not Arabs.

36 Some basic beliefs of Islam • There is a single, indivisible God who

36 Some basic beliefs of Islam • There is a single, indivisible God who is just, omnipotent and merciful. • Islam existed before Muhammad (pbuh) was born; the origins of Islam date back to the creation of the world, and Muhammad (pbuh) was the last of a series of Prophets (including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus). • The Koran (Qur'an) is the word of God, dictated by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed. It is the final, universal message for all people. All people are considered children of Adam, and all children are born pure. • There will be a Day of Judgment when people will either attain paradise in Heaven or punishment in Hell. No individual can atone for another's sins.

37 the 5 pillars of islam • The creed: “There is no God but

37 the 5 pillars of islam • The creed: “There is no God but God, and Mohammed is His Prophet. ” • Daily prayer: Five times every day a Muslim prays facing the city of Mecca. • Charity: Muslims are obligated to give to charity. • Fasting: During the month of Ramadan Muslims must refrain from eating, drinking and all other “sensual pleasures” during daylight hours. • Pilgrimage: If at all possible, every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his or her lifetime.

38 Branches of Islam • There are two basic branches of Islam: – SUNNI

38 Branches of Islam • There are two basic branches of Islam: – SUNNI (“ ʻAhlu-s-Sunnah” – “people of the tradition of Muhammad and the consensus”) • About 83% of all Muslims. • Most widespread branch. – SHI’ITE (“Shīʻatu ʻAlī” – “followers of Ali”) • About 17% of all Muslims. • Mostly concentrated in and near Iran. • Originally split from Sunni over the issue of the succession; belief in 12 heavenly Imams; the final Imam, the Mahdi never died, and will someday return. • Other groups: – Sufis; Alawites; Nation of Islam (“Black Muslims”), etc.

39 The Organization of Space • Religions are a part of culture, and culture

39 The Organization of Space • Religions are a part of culture, and culture must deal with the world – with issues of space and place, including: – HOLY PLACES AND PILGRIMAGE – PLACE NAMES – SACRED SPACES • THE PLACES OF THE DEAD • RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES • ADMINISTRATION OF SPACE

40 Holy Places • Many religions – both ethnic and universal – have declared

40 Holy Places • Many religions – both ethnic and universal – have declared certain places holy (divine, worthy of reverence). • In universal religions these places are usually associated with the life of the founder of the religion (or with some other important figure). • In ethnic religions holy places are usually associated with distinctive natural features – mountains, rivers, etc. • Pilgrimage – a journey made to holy places for spiritual purposes – is important in many religions, both ethnic and universal.

41 Place names • In many parts of the world places are named for

41 Place names • In many parts of the world places are named for saints, holy people, miraculous events, or other sacred places. • This shouldn’t come as a surprise to anybody living in “San Diego County, ” which contains communities named “San Carlos, ” “San Marcos” and “San Ysidro, ” as well as natural features like the “San Luis Rey River, ” “San Miguel Mountain, ” “San Onofre Beach, ” “San Pasqual Valley, ” and the “San Vicente Reservoir!” Place Names in Québec

42 Places of Worship • Sacred structures “anchor” religions, and most major religions have

42 Places of Worship • Sacred structures “anchor” religions, and most major religions have distinctive places of worship. • The function of such structures varies: – Christian churches are often considered sacred – sanctified by God. – Mosques are places for the community to come together, but are not usually considered sacred. – Hindu and Buddhist temples may be sacred, but are not usually places for the religious community to worship together. Mosque, Samarkand Buddhist stupa, Taos NM Protestant church and cemetery, Ferndale CA Sources: http: //www. loc. gov/exhibits/empire/architecture. html; http: //www. rinpoche. com/newsltr 10. 99. htm

43 Places of the Dead • Death and the fate of the dead is

43 Places of the Dead • Death and the fate of the dead is a fundamental human concern, and the proper disposal of the dead is always of great importance. • There are several different methods that are widely used: – BURIAL (favored by most Christians, Muslims, Jews and by the Chinese) – BURIAL AT SEA (favored by some Animists) – CREMATION (favored by Hindus and some Buddhists) – EXPOSURE (favored by some Animists, Zoroastrians and some Buddhists)