PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ELEMENTS OF GROUPS 1 A

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PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ELEMENTS OF GROUPS 1 A – 1 VA, THEIR COMPOUNDS AND

PHARMACEUTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY ELEMENTS OF GROUPS 1 A – 1 VA, THEIR COMPOUNDS AND APPLICATIONS IN PHARMACY DR (MRS) C. O. OGAH

GROUP 1 A ELEMENTS • Lithium • Sodium • Potassium • Rubidium • Cesium

GROUP 1 A ELEMENTS • Lithium • Sodium • Potassium • Rubidium • Cesium Also called alkali metals due to their ability to form soluble hydroxides.

General Characteristics • Shiny, grayish white metals • Monovalent, highly electropositive and therefore extremely

General Characteristics • Shiny, grayish white metals • Monovalent, highly electropositive and therefore extremely reactive (hence never found in elemental form in nature). • Lower densities than other metals due to smaller nuclear charge. • Lower melting and boiling points because of their relatively large size and weak nuclear charge which reduces the strength of the metallic bonds in these metals. • They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

General Characteristics 2 • They give a sensitive flame test with characteristic flame colours

General Characteristics 2 • They give a sensitive flame test with characteristic flame colours due to ease of excitation of the outermost electron. • They are powerful reducing agents as they readily donate their valence electron to achieve octet or stable structures. • When exposed to air, they tarnish rapidly (due to high reactivity), building a crust of the oxides.

Table 1: Summary of General Group Properties of Group IA Elements Property Lithium Sodium

Table 1: Summary of General Group Properties of Group IA Elements Property Lithium Sodium (Li) Potassium (Na) Rubidium (K) Caesium (Rb) (Cs) Atomic Number 3 11 19 37 55 Outer Electronic 2 s 1 3 s 1 4 s 1 5 s 1 6 s 1 +1 +1 Structure Principal Oxidation +1 State Increases down the group Atomic Radius (nm or Å) Ionization 1 st 5. 39 5. 14 4. 34 4. 18 3. 89 2 nd 75. 6 47. 3 31. 8 27. 5 25. 1 Potential Electronegativity Decreases down the group Melting Point Decreases down the group Boiling Point Decreases down the group Flame Colour Crimson Golden Lilac Red Blue

Definition of Terms • Effective Nuclear Charge – This is the net effect of

Definition of Terms • Effective Nuclear Charge – This is the net effect of nuclear charge on an electron when the repulsive (or shielding) effect of other electrons have been taken into consideration. Zeff = Z ᵟ ᵟ = shielding or screening constant • Electron Affinity – The ability of an atom in the gaseous state to accept one or more electrons.

Definition of Terms • Electronegativity – The relative tendency of an atom to attract

Definition of Terms • Electronegativity – The relative tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. • Ionization Energy (Potential) – Minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state. It is measured in KJ/mol.

Compounds of Group 1 A Elements • Generally ionic and water soluble. • Usually

Compounds of Group 1 A Elements • Generally ionic and water soluble. • Usually colourless, except their compounds with coloured: Chromate (VI) yellow Dichromate (VI) Orange Manganate (VI) Purple (permanganate) • They generally do not form complexes because of their large size and small charge i. e. low charge/size ratio.

Hydrides • Alkali metals form white, solid, ionic hydrides when heated in hydrogen gas.

Hydrides • Alkali metals form white, solid, ionic hydrides when heated in hydrogen gas. 2 M(s) + H 2(g) ∆ 2 MH(s) • The hydrides are all hydrolyzed to the hydroxides by water, liberating hydrogen. Na. H(s) + H 2 O(l) Na. OH(aq) + H 2 (g)

 Oxides • The metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides which in

Oxides • The metals react with oxygen to form basic oxides which in turn form hydroxides on reaction with water. • The type of oxide formed, however, varies down the group with Lithium forming only a monoxide (simple oxide). • Sodium forms the peroxide while potassium, rubidium and caesium form superoxides under similar conditions as their simple oxides are not stable in the solid state. • Peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidizing agents.

Oxides 2 • 4 Li(s) • 2 Na(s) • K(s) + O 2 (g)

Oxides 2 • 4 Li(s) • 2 Na(s) • K(s) + O 2 (g) 2 Li 2 O(s) + O 2 (g) Na 2 O 2(s) + O 2 (g) KO 2(s)

Hydroxides • In water, the metals react vigorously to form strongly alkaline hydroxides, liberating

Hydroxides • In water, the metals react vigorously to form strongly alkaline hydroxides, liberating hydrogen. 2 M(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) 2 MOH(aq) + H 2(g) • The hydroxides of alkali metals are white, deliquescent, crystalline solids. They are readily soluble in water (except for lithium hydroxide which is only slightly soluble) to yield strong bases known as alkali.

Hydroxides 2 • They are formed in several reactions of the metals and their

Hydroxides 2 • They are formed in several reactions of the metals and their compounds, e. g. reaction of their oxides with water: Li 2 O(s) + H 2 O (l) 2 Li. OH (aq) Na 2 O 2 + 2 H 2 O (l) 2 Na. OH (aq) + H 2 O 2(aq) 2 KO 2 (s) + 2 H 2 O (l) 2 KOH (aq) + H 2 O 2(aq) + O 2(g)

Halides and Other Compounds • Alkali metals react with halogens to form metal halides

Halides and Other Compounds • Alkali metals react with halogens to form metal halides or polyhalides. With chlorine, they form colourless ionic chlorides with high melting and boiling points. 2 M(s) + Cl 2 (g) 2 MCl(s) • The metals react with many other anions to form such compounds as tetraoxosulphate VI, tetraoxonitrate V, tetraoxocarbonate IV, hydrogen trioxocarbonate IV, etc. • They also react with some organic groups to form organometallic compounds eg.

Application in Pharmacy • Lithium has no normal physiologic role and its compounds are

Application in Pharmacy • Lithium has no normal physiologic role and its compounds are no longer used in pharmacy because of the toxicity of the lithium ion. • However, lithium carbonate USP and lithium citrate USP are still valuable in the treatment of manic depressive disorders (patient must be closely monitored for blood lithium levels).

Application in Pharmacy 2 • For correction of electrolyte imbalance, osmotic pressure and acid

Application in Pharmacy 2 • For correction of electrolyte imbalance, osmotic pressure and acid base disturbance. Na. Cl, Na. HCO 3 and KCl orally or iv. Multicomponent preparations such as Darrow’s solution are also used. • As antacids to neutralize excess gastric acid. Na. HCO 3 is used in combination with other compounds in antacid preparations.

Application in Pharmacy 3 • For alkalinisation of urine. Eg. potassium citrate mixture BP.

Application in Pharmacy 3 • For alkalinisation of urine. Eg. potassium citrate mixture BP. (Mist. Pot. Cit. ). • As laxatives or purgatives to ease evacuation of bowels in constipation. Eg. sodium tetraoxosulphate VI (Glauber’s salt). • As intioxidants to prevent oxidative decomposition of pharmaceutical preparations and as fruit preservatives in the food industry. Eg. sodium dioxonitrate III (sodium nitrite).

Application in Pharmacy 4 • As cations to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of some

Application in Pharmacy 4 • As cations to optimize the pharmaceutical utility of some medicaments. E. g. Phenobarbital sodium, diclofenac potassium, etc. • As oxidizing antimicrobial agents in topical preparations. E. g. potassium permanganate (KMn. O 4). • In dentistry as anticaries preparations to prevent tooth decay by reducing the acidity of the oral cavity. E. g. sodium fluoride (Na. F).

Application in Pharmacy 5 • In preparations used as cough expectorants E. g. sodium

Application in Pharmacy 5 • In preparations used as cough expectorants E. g. sodium chloride, potassium citrate. • In a number of diagnostic preparations. E. g. sodium iodipamide for the radio examination of the bile duct (cholangiography). v. Rubidium and Caesium have no application in pharmacy for now.

GROUP IIA ELEMENTS • Members include: beryllium magnesium calcium strontium barium • Also referred

GROUP IIA ELEMENTS • Members include: beryllium magnesium calcium strontium barium • Also referred to as alkaline earth metals and together with the alkali metals are known as the active metals.

General Characteristics • Less reactive than the alkali metals but similar to them in

General Characteristics • Less reactive than the alkali metals but similar to them in many respects. • Divalent, electropositive, shiny, soft, malleable metals. • Denser and of higher melting (and boiling) point than the alkali metals because of increased nuclear charge which pulls in the outer electrons and holds them more firmly. • Increased number of valence electrons increases strength of metallic bonds formed.

Table 2: General Properties of Group IIA Elements Property Beryllium Magnesium (Be) (Mg) Atomic

Table 2: General Properties of Group IIA Elements Property Beryllium Magnesium (Be) (Mg) Atomic Number 4 Principal Oxidation +2 Calcium Strontium (Ca) 12 (Sr) 20 +2 Barium (Ba) 38 +2 56 +2 +2 State Atomic Radius Increases down the group Ionization 1 st 9. 32 7. 64 6. 11 5. 69 5. 21 Potential 2 nd 18. 20 15. 00 11. 90 11. 00 10. 00 (e. V) Electronegativity Flame Colour Decreases down the group --- Dazzling Brick-red Crimson Apple or White Yellowish

Reactions • They react with water but much more mildly than the alkali metals.

Reactions • They react with water but much more mildly than the alkali metals. The ease of reaction increases from Be to Ba. Mg + 2 H 2 O → Mg(OH)2 + H 2 ↑ Ca + 2 H 2 O → Ca(OH)2 + H 2 ↑ • They (except Be) react with atmospheric O 2 to form oxides, with H 2 to form hydrides (MH 2) and with N 2 to form nitrides (M 3 N 2). 3 Mg + N 2 ∆ Mg 3 N 2

Reactions • They react with carbon in an electric furnace to form carbides, which

Reactions • They react with carbon in an electric furnace to form carbides, which when reacted with water or dilute acid form hydrocarbons. Mg + 2 C 500˚C Mg. C 2 + 2 H 2 O Mg(OH)2 + CH ≡ CH ↑

Compounds of Group IIA Elements • Typically white or colourless • Generally ionic except

Compounds of Group IIA Elements • Typically white or colourless • Generally ionic except Be compounds which posses some covalent characters due to its small size and relatively high charge. • Form few complexes, Be being the most active in this regard.

HYDRIDES • They react with H 2 gas at high temperature to form metal

HYDRIDES • They react with H 2 gas at high temperature to form metal hydrides. M + H 2 ∆ MH 2 • The hydrides are white powders and generally ionic except hydrides of Be and Mg • They react with water liberating H 2 under ordinary conditions. Ca. H 2(s) + 2 H 2 O → Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2 H 2 ↑

 HYDROXIDES • They form hydroxides by reacting with water but usually, the hydroxides

HYDROXIDES • They form hydroxides by reacting with water but usually, the hydroxides are formed by adding water to the oxides, a process called slaking. Ca. O + H 2 O → Ca(OH)2 (Quick lime) (Slaked lime) • The hydroxides are basic, except Be(OH)2 which is amphoteric.

OXIDES They are basic (except Be. O), formed by heating the metals in O

OXIDES They are basic (except Be. O), formed by heating the metals in O 2 or by thermal decomposition of the carbonates, nitrates or hydroxides. 2 M + O 2 → 2 MO Ca. CO 3(s) 900˚C Ca. O(s) + CO 2 (g) • The oxides react with H 2 O to form hydroxides and with acids to form salts and H 2 O. Ca. O(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → Ca. Cl 2(aq) + H 2 O(l)

HALIDES • Formed by direct combination with the appropriate halogen or by treating the

HALIDES • Formed by direct combination with the appropriate halogen or by treating the metal carbonate with the appropriate halogen acid. M + X 2 → MX 2 MCO 3 + 2 HX → MX 2 + H 2 O + CO 2 • They are generally ionic in character and are hygroscopic, forming hydrates on exposure to the atmosphere. E. g. Mg. Cl 2. 6 H 2 O

CARBONATES • They decompose on heating and are generally insoluble in water. • The

CARBONATES • They decompose on heating and are generally insoluble in water. • The most common of the carbonates is Ca. CO 3 which exists in nature as limestone, chalk, marble, etc. • Ca. CO 3 can be obtained as a white precipitate by bubbling carbon dioxide into Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 → Ca. CO 3 + H 2 O

SULPHATES • Alkaline earth metals form a number of important sulphates such as: Mg.

SULPHATES • Alkaline earth metals form a number of important sulphates such as: Mg. SO 4. 7 H 20 (Epsom salt) Ba. SO 4 and Ca. SO 4. 2 H 2 O (Gypsum) • Gypsum on partial dehydration at 125˚C yields Plaster of Paris (POP). • Solubility of the sulphates decreases down the group from readily soluble Be. SO 4 to sparingly soluble Ba. SO 4. • Mg and Ca sulphates are a cause of permanent hardness in water.

Application in Pharmacy • Be and its compounds no application in pharmacy because they

Application in Pharmacy • Be and its compounds no application in pharmacy because they are toxic. • Mg 2+ is the second most predominant cation of the intracellular fluid. • It is a natural Ca channel blocker, therefore important in many cardiovascular diseases. • It is also important in muscle contractility and neuron transmission. It is a cofactor in numerous enzyme systems. • Its replacement is by use of Mg. Cl 2 or Mg acetate BP.

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Mg oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, phosphate and trisilicate are used

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Mg oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, phosphate and trisilicate are used as antacids, may cause diarrhea. • Mg sulphate is used as a cathartic, anticonvulsant, local anti inflammatory as well as antidote for Ba poisoning. • Mg stearate is used as lubricant in the preparation of compressed tablets.

Application in Pharmacy 3 • Ca is essential for normal muscle and nerve function

Application in Pharmacy 3 • Ca is essential for normal muscle and nerve function as well as in blood clotting. • About 99% of the body’s Ca is in bones and teeth while the remaining 1% is in body fluids as electrolyte. • In Ca deficiency (hypocalcemic states), Ca. Cl 2 is usually given orally or by i. v. for replenishment. Ca gluconate, Ca lactate and Ca hydrogen phosphate (Ca tetraoxophosphate V) are also used. • Some multicomponent solutions such as Ringer’s Injection contain Ca.

Application in Pharmacy 4 • Ca salts such as Ca. CO 3 and calcium

Application in Pharmacy 4 • Ca salts such as Ca. CO 3 and calcium phosphate [Ca 3 (PO 4)2] are used as antacids to neutralize excess gastric acid. • Ca antacids often cause constipation and are therefore usually co administered with Mg compounds. Ca, Mg and Al antacids should not be co administered with certain drugs e. g. tetracycline, to avoid chelation which renders both drugs useless. • Ca gluconate i. v. is used as an antidote in Mg poisoning while dried Ca. SO 4 is used as Plaster of Paris (POP. • Ca. Cl 2 being hygroscopic is often used as a drying agent.

Application in Pharmacy 5 • Sr has no application in pharmacy for now. •

Application in Pharmacy 5 • Sr has no application in pharmacy for now. • Ba compounds, especially the soluble ones are very toxic and are therefore not used as medicinal agents. • However, Ba. SO 4 which is insoluble is used as Ba meal (a radio opaque substance) in the x ray investigation of the G. I tract.

GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS • Members include: Boron Aluminum Gallium Indium Thallium.

GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS • Members include: Boron Aluminum Gallium Indium Thallium.

General Characteristics • They show typical metallic properties except for boron which can be

General Characteristics • They show typical metallic properties except for boron which can be described as a semimetal being the least electropositive in the group (due to its small size and high charge). • They have a higher tendency to form covalent compounds as their outer electrons are more tightly held.

Table 3: General Properties of IIIA Elements Property Boron Aluminum Gallium Indium Thallium (B)

Table 3: General Properties of IIIA Elements Property Boron Aluminum Gallium Indium Thallium (B) (Al) (Ga) (In) (Tl) Atomic Number 5 13 31 49 81 Oxidation State +3 (+1), +3 +1, +2, +3 +1, +3 Atomic Radius Increases down the group Ionization Potential 1 st 8. 30 nd 2 Decreases down the group 25. 15 rd 3 37. 92 Electronegativity Decreases down the group Melting Point Decreases down the group (but irregular) Boiling Point Decreases down the group

General Properties • The principal oxidation state of the elements is +3, indicating loss

General Properties • The principal oxidation state of the elements is +3, indicating loss of all three valence electrons (ns 2, np 1). • After Al, the great tendency for the ns 2 electrons to form an inert pair makes the +1 oxidation state possible. • Group IIIA elements do not readily react with atmospheric oxygen but when heated, they form oxides (M 2 O 3) which are readily reduced back to the free metal. • They react with halogens to form halides (MX 3). • They also form a series of double salts called alums. E. g. K 2 Al 2 (SO 4)4. 24 H 20.

Compounds of Group IIIA Elements • Compounds of boron are largely covalent due to

Compounds of Group IIIA Elements • Compounds of boron are largely covalent due to its non metallic character. • Those of Al and Ga are amphoteric. • Compounds of In and Tl are electrovalent in character. • Only compounds of Al are of pharmaceutical importance and the common ones are Al(OH)3 and Al(Cl)3.

Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)3) • It is amphoteric and soluble in water. • Readily obtained

Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)3) • It is amphoteric and soluble in water. • Readily obtained as a white or colourless precipitate when dilute NH 3 is added to a solution of an aluminum salt. Al 2(SO 4)3 + 6 NH 4 OH → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3(NH 4)2 SO 4

Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)3) • When heated, Al(OH)3 decomposes into the oxide and water. •

Aluminum Hydroxide (Al(OH)3) • When heated, Al(OH)3 decomposes into the oxide and water. • Being amphoteric, it reacts with dilute mineral acid to form salt and water and is also soluble in caustic alkali solution. Al(OH)3 + 3 HCl → Al. Cl 3 + 3 H 2 O Al(OH)3 + Na. OH → Na. Al(OH)4 Sodium aluminate

Aluminum Chloride (Al. Cl 3) • Pale yellow solid prepared by heating aluminum foil

Aluminum Chloride (Al. Cl 3) • Pale yellow solid prepared by heating aluminum foil in dry chlorine or dry HCl. 2 Al + 3 Cl 2 → 2 Al. Cl 3 2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 Al. Cl 3 + 3 H 2 • Al. Cl 3 may also be formed by the action of dilute HCl on the oxide or carbonate. • It is deliquescent and absorbs water to form the hydrate – Al. Cl 3. 6 H 2 O.

Application in Pharmacy • Boron and its compounds are toxic, not widely used as

Application in Pharmacy • Boron and its compounds are toxic, not widely used as medicinal agents. • However, boric acid (H 3 BO 3) and some borates e. g. sodium perborate are used as local anti infective agents in cold creams, eye and mouth washes. • Aluminum compounds such as Al(OH)3 and aluminum PO 4 are used as gastric antacids while Kaolin (hydrated Al silicate powder) is used as adsorbent.

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Al compounds are also present in some combination antacids

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Al compounds are also present in some combination antacids e. g. Aludrox [Al(OH)3 gel – Mg(OH)2] and Gelusil [Al(OH)3 gel – Mg trisilicate]. • Ga, In and Tl are of no importance in pharmacy at present. Their radioactive isotopes are however used as diagnostic aids.

GROUP IVA ELEMENTS • They include: Carbon Silicon Germanium Tin Lead

GROUP IVA ELEMENTS • They include: Carbon Silicon Germanium Tin Lead

General Properties • They have four valence electrons (ns 2, np 2). • They

General Properties • They have four valence electrons (ns 2, np 2). • They therefore exhibit the +4 oxidation state arising from unpaired ns electrons. • Lower oxidation states are possible as the tendency of the s electrons to remain paired (i. e. inert pair effect) increases down the group.

General Properties 2 • First member of the group is a non metal, the

General Properties 2 • First member of the group is a non metal, the second and third are semi metals while the last two are distinctly metallic in properties. • Certain of their properties are slightly irregular due to the presence of inner d electrons. • Carbon is a special member of the group, occurring in two main allotropic forms: diamond and graphite.

General Properties 3 • It has a unique ability to form multiple bonds with

General Properties 3 • It has a unique ability to form multiple bonds with itself and certain other elements such as N, O and S. • Its feature of catenation (ability to form long chains of identical atoms) is stronger than any other element. • The uniqueness of carbon is the basis of organic chemistry.

Table 4: General Properties of Group IVA Elements Property Atomic Carbon Silicon (C) Germanium

Table 4: General Properties of Group IVA Elements Property Atomic Carbon Silicon (C) Germanium Tin Lead (Si) (Ge) (Sn) (Pb) 6 14 32 50 82 -4 to +4 +2, +4 Number Oxidation States Atomic Increases down the group Radius Ionization Decreases down the group Potential Electronegetiv Decreases down the group ity Melting Point Decreases down the group Boiling Point Decreases down the group

Compounds of Group IVA Elements • Generally covalent in character. • Carbon and silicon

Compounds of Group IVA Elements • Generally covalent in character. • Carbon and silicon exhibit the +4 oxidation state in most of their inorganic compounds. • Lower oxidation state of +2 is unstable E. g. carbon monoxide (CO) is less stable and more reactive than carbon dioxide (CO 2).

Compounds of Group IVA Elements 2 • Carbon forms a wide range of compounds

Compounds of Group IVA Elements 2 • Carbon forms a wide range of compounds classified as organic compounds. In addition, it is present in many inorganic compounds. • Si forms a number of hydrides (silanes), oxides such as silica and a series of silicates e. g. magnesium silicate. It occurs with carbon in compounds called silicones.

Compounds of Group IVA Elements 3 • Ge forms hydrides known as germanes and

Compounds of Group IVA Elements 3 • Ge forms hydrides known as germanes and other compounds similar to those of Si. • Sn forms two series of compounds known as stannous (+2) and stannic (+4). • Pb forms plumbous (+2) and plumbic (+4) compounds.

Application in Pharmacy • Carbon is present as carbonates and bicarbonates in gastric antacids,

Application in Pharmacy • Carbon is present as carbonates and bicarbonates in gastric antacids, electrolyte replenishers and cough expectorants. E. g. Ca. CO 3, Na. HCO 3. • It is present in adsorbents such as activated charcoal used in the treatment of diarrhea and as antidote in heavy metal or other poisoning.

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Carbon is also a component of chelating agents such

Application in Pharmacy 2 • Carbon is also a component of chelating agents such as Na edetate which is used as an anticoagulant in blood storage and to remove traces of heavy metals from pharmaceutical preparations to improve their stability. • Carbon is present in the organic portion of many drugs such as anti infective agents, analgesics, etc.

Application in Pharmacy 3 • Silicon compounds are useful as: – intestinal adsorbent and

Application in Pharmacy 3 • Silicon compounds are useful as: – intestinal adsorbent and protective e. g. Kaolin. – protective and lubricant in dusting powders and cosmetic products to prevent irritation e. g. Talc (Mg 3(OH)2 Si 4 O 10) – adsorbent in column and thin layer chromatography e. g. Silica gel.

Application in Pharmacy 4 – anti flatulent in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous

Application in Pharmacy 4 – anti flatulent in gastric bloating and in postoperative gaseous G. I. T distention e. g. Simethicone (a polymer of dimethylsiloxane). – storage and dispensing containers for drugs and chemicals e. g. Glass (a vitreous silicate material).

Application in Pharmacy 5 • Ge is not widely used in pharmacy. • Sn

Application in Pharmacy 5 • Ge is not widely used in pharmacy. • Sn compounds such as Tin(II) fluoride are used in solution for topical application in dental prophylaxis, also contained in some tooth pastes. • Tin IV oxide preparations for external use against organisms like staphylococcus which are resistant to other germicidal agents. • Pb compounds, though good astringents, are no longer used as medicinal agents because Pb being a heavy metal is a cumulative poison.

Books • University General Chemistry – Inorganic and Physical by Y. C. Wong, C.

Books • University General Chemistry – Inorganic and Physical by Y. C. Wong, C. T. Wong, S. O. Onyiruka and L. E. S. Akpanisi. • Chemistry – International Student Edition by Chang and Goldsby. • Essential Inorganic and Organic Pharmaceutical Chemistry by Olaniyi et al.