Ionizing Nonionizing Radiation ENGR 4410 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE INSTRUMENTATION
- Slides: 134
Ionizing & Non-ionizing Radiation ENGR 4410 – INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE INSTRUMENTATION October 23, 2013 Janet M. Gutiérrez, Dr. PH, CHP, RRPT Radiation Safety Program Manager Environmental Health & Safety 713 -500 -5844 Janet. R. Mc. Crary@uth. tmc. edu
Speaker Biography Janet M. Gutierrez is manager of the Radiation Safety Program at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. She is a Certified Health Physicist (CHP) and a Registered Radiation Protection Technologist (RRPT). In August 2011, she received a Doctorate in Public Health from the The University of Texas at Houston School of Public Health (UT SPH), and in 2005, she received a M. S. in Environmental Sciences / Industrial Hygiene from UT SPH as well. In 1998, Janet received a B. S. in Radiological Health Engineering from Texas A&M University in College Station, TX.
Speaker Biography Travis Halphen is a Safety Specialist in the Radiation Safety Program at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHSC-H). He is currently seeking his MPH in Environmental Health and Occupational Safety from University of Texas School of Public Health (UT SPH) and on May 2006 he received a Bachelors in Medical Physics from Louisiana State University. He was Assistant Radiation Safety Officer and Laser Safety Officer at Kansas State University from 2006 to 2008 before he ended up at his current position at UTHSC-H
Ionizing vs. Non-ionizing Radiation Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radiation
Ionizing & Non-ionizing Radiation Units Types Decay Biological Effects Inverse Square Law Shielding, HVL, TVL Instruments Dosimetry Biological Effects Regulations Practice Problems Regulations/Guides
What is Radiation? Radiation is energy transmitted by particles or electromagnetic waves Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing
Basic Concepts Radiation: energy Ionizing vs. Non-Ionizing: enough energy to eject orbital electrons Radioactivity: excess nuclear energy
Radioactivity is the natural property of certain nuclides to spontaneously emit energy, in the form of ionizing radiation, in an attempt to become more stable.
Basic Concepts Radionuclide Nuclide Isotopes have the same Z and a different A; z Isobars have the same A and a different Z; z 14 N, 14 O; 15 N, 15 C Isomers have the same A and the same Z; z 10 C, 11 C, 12 C, 13 C, 14 C 99 m. Tc, 99 Tc Isotones have the same N and a different A; z 14 O, 13 N, 12 C, 11 B, 10 Be, 8 Li
Basic Concepts Types of radiation: z z z Alpha: particulate, massive Beta: particulate, penetrating Gamma: electromagnetic, penetrating X-ray: electromagnetic, penetrating Neutron: particulate, no charge
Alpha (α) Needs at least 7. 5 Me. V energy to penetrate nominal protective layer of skin (7 mg/cm 2) z Most α less than this energy, so can not penetrate skin Range in air Range (cm) = 0. 56 E for E< 4 Me. V Range (cm) = 1. 24 E-2. 62 for E> 4 Me. V
Beta (β) Need at least 70 ke. V energy for beta to penetrate nominal protective layer of skin βave = 1/3 βmax Range in air Range is ~ 12 ft / Me. V Bremsstrahlung for high energy beta & high Z material z Ex. P-32 and Lead
Gamma (γ) Photoelectric Compton Scattering Pair Production Photon X-ray Gamma ray
Neutrons (n) Often expressed in n / cm 2 sec (flux) Thermal neutrons = 0. 025 e. V Slow neutrons = 1 e. V – 10 e. V Fast neutrons = 1 Me. V – 20 Me. V Relativistic neutrons = > 20 Me. V U-238 & U-235
Shielding Examples
Shielding for Multiple Types of Radiation High Energy Betas Bremstrahlung Neutrons Gammas
Units Activity: Curie (Ci) 3. 7 x 1010 disintegrations per second z Exposure: Roentgen z SI: C/kg Absorbed Dose: Rad (Roentgen Absorbed Dose) z SI: Becquerel 1 dps SI: Gray, 1 Gy = 100 Rad Risk: Rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man), Rad x QF z SI: Sievert, 1 Sv = 100 Rem
Quality Factors
Half-life - the amount of time required for 1/2 of the original sample to decay The half-life is constant for each radionuclide and varies due to the nuclear structure.
Radioactive Decay Is the process by which the amount of activity of a radionuclide diminishes with time. Examples:
Radioactive Decay Formula Variables A Activity at time t A 0 Original Activity t Time Decay Constant T 1/2 Half Life Constants ln 2 0. 693 e 1 2. 718
Concepts Radioactive Decay: A = Aoe-λt ü ü A = λN λ = 0. 693 / T 1/2 Inverse Square Law Shielding I = Io. Be- t
Annual US Average Dose from Background Radiation was Total exposure Man-made sources Medical X-Rays 11% Radon 55. 0% Other 1% Internal 11% Cosmic 8% Man-Made 18% Terrestrial 6% Nuclear Medicine 4% Consumer Products 3% Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year
Annual US Average Dose from Background Radiation Now is 625 mrem National Average Dose is US is 625 mrem, with medical being the largest type of increase.
Ionization of Gas – Radiation Detector A = recombination B = ionization C = proportional D = limited proportional E = Geiger Muller F = continuous discharge
Monitoring Instrumentation z z z Gas filled Solid scintillator Liquid scintillation
Monitoring Dosimeters z Film badges: beta, gamma, x-ray ü ü z Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD): beta, gamma, x-ray ü ü z Permanent record Subject to fading No permanent record Can be used for long term use Pocket ion chamber: gamma, x-ray ü ü Immediate readout Shock sensitive
Biological Effects Radiation Effects on Cells: z z Somatic (early, delayed) & Genetic Dose Responses ü Linear, Linear Quadratic, Threshold
Stochastic and Non-stochastic Effects Stochastic effects z z Dose increases the probability of the effect No threshold Any exposure has some chance of causing the effect Cancer Non-stochastic effects z z Dose increases the severity of the effect Threshold Effects result from collective injury of many cells Reddening, cataract, skin burn
Biological Effects Assumptions Used for Basis of Radiation Protection Standards z No Threshold Dose, Risk with Given Dose Increases With Increasing Dose Received, Acute vs. Chronic Exposures Not Considered, i. e. Repair
Biological Effects Prenatal Exposures z Law of Bergonie & Tribondeau (1906): ü ü Cells Tend to be Radiosensitive if They Have Three Properties: A) Have a High Division Rate B) Have a Long Dividing Future C) Are of an Unspecialized Type
Most and Least Radiosensitive Cells Low Sensitivity Mature red blood cells Muscle cells Ganglion cells Mature connective tissues High Sensitivity Gastric mucosa Mucous membranes Esophageal epithelium Urinary bladder epithelium Very High Sensitivity Primitive blood cells Intestinal epithelium Spermatogonia Ovarian follicular cells Lymphocytes
Acute Radiation Syndromes Occurs if specific portions of body are exposed Not likely unless major organs involved 3 ARS syndromes: z Hematopoietic (blood/bone marrow) ü 100 -700 rad ü Treatment: transfusions, antibiotics, bone marrow transplant z Gastrointestinal (intestinal lining) ü 500 -2500 rad ü Death likely if dose >1000 rad ü Treatment: make individual comfortable z Central Nervous System (brain) ü 2000 rad or more ü Death likely within days ü Treatment: make individual comfortable
LD 50 for Humans Dose of radiation that would result in 50% mortality of in the exposed population within 30 days of exposure with NO medical treatment LD 50 for Humans is 300 to 500 rad
Risks of Radiation Exposure Low level (< 10, 000 mrem) radiation z Only health effect: cancer induction Average occupational dose to research and lab medicine personnel: <10 mrem/yr z Amount is comparable to: ü ü ü 6 cigarettes/yr Driving 1, 000 miles Living in a stone or brick home for 2 months
Regulations / Guidelines NRC z Agreement States NCRP ICRP ALARA Program
Exposure Limits Regulations: NRC 10 CFR 20 Note old: z z z Whole body: 1. 25 rem/quarter Skin: 7. 5 rem/quarter Extremities 18. 75 rem/quarter New: z Committed Dose Equivalent (CDE) ü Dose to a particular organ: ﻬ Internal + External ≤ 50 rem
Exposure Limits z Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (CEDE) ü Dose to a particular organ or organs with weighting factor: ﻬ z Deep Dose Equivalent (DDE) ü Dose at a depth of ≥ 1 cm: ﻬ z Internal + External ≤ 5 rem (Eye ≤ 15 rem) Shallow Dose Equivalent (SDE) ü Dose to skin or extremity: ﻬ External ≤ 50 rem
Exposure Limits z Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE) ü Sum of dose from external and internal, including weighting: ﻬ z Effective Dose Equivalent ü z Dose to organ or organs over one year period Total Organ Dose Equivalent ü Dose to organ from both internal and external: ﻬ z Internal + External ≤ 5 rem Internal + External ≤ 50 rem Exposure to Fetus (Declared Pregnancy). 5 Rem/9 months
Other Useful Information 6 CE rule Efficiency = c/d, usually in percent Effective half life: Stay time = dose / dose rate REMEMBER UNITS!
http: //www. icrp. org Internal advisory body for ionizing radiation ICRP Publications (examples) z z z ICRP 84, Pregnancy and medical radiation ICRP 85, Interventional radiology ICRP 86, Accidents in radiotherapy ICRP 87, CT dose management ICRP 93, Digital radiology
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements http: //www. ncrponline. org formulate and widely disseminate information, guidance and recommendations on radiation protection and measurements which represent the consensus of leading scientific thinking publication of NCRP materials can make an important contribution to the public interest. NCRP 148 – Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine NCRP 138 – Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material* NCRP 134 – Operational Radiation Safety Training NCRP 120 – Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants NCRP 115 – Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection
Control Programs for Sources of Radiation Sealed Sources Radiation-Producing Machines Radioisotopes Radioactive Metals Criticality Plutonium
Control Programs for Sources of Radiation Operational Factors Employee Exposure Potential • • External Hazards Internal Hazards Records
Common Radionuclides Sealed sources z Cs-137, Co-60, Ir-192, Am-241, Kr-85, Sr-90, Po -208 Liquid radioactive material for research z P-32, P-33, S-35, H-3, C-14
Radiation Practice Problems Ionizing Radiation
Radiation Practice Problems 1. Iodine-131 has a radiological half life of 8 days. If a source originally contained 25 m. Ci how much remains after 18 days?
Radiation Practice Problems 2. Two measurements are taken on an unknown radiation source. The first was 1. 3 m. Ci, and the second, taken 15 minutes later, was 0. 05 m. Ci. What is the half life of this material?
Radiation Practice Problems 3. What is the exposure rate from a 15 Ci Cs -137 source at a distance of 1 foot? (Cs-137 gamma energy 0. 662 Me. V) How about 10 feet?
Radiation Practice Problems 4. How long can a worker stay 10 feet away from a 15 Ci Cs-137 source without exceeding an administratively established quarterly dose limit of 1250 mrem?
Non-ionizing Radiation
What is Radiation? Radiation is energy transmitted by particles or electromagnetic waves Radiation can be ionizing or non-ionizing
Definition Non-Ionizing Radiation = Radiation that does not cause ionization Types of non-ionizing radiation include: 1. Ultraviolet (UV) light 2. Visible light 3. Infrared (IR) light 4. Microwaves 5. Radiowaves
Let’s Review – The Atom In their normal state, atoms are electrically neutral (no net charge) # protons = # electrons Positive and negative charges cancel An atom that has gained or lost electrons is called an ion
The Ionization Process 1. 2. An in-coming photon interacts with an orbital electron The electron is ejected from the atom, and the atom gains a net positive charge. Incident photon Ejected electron
Non-Ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing radiation is electromagnetic in nature: z z This means it has characteristics of both waves and particles However, non-ionizing radiation behaves primarily as a wave
Electromagnetic Spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum covers an entire range of electromagnetic radiation Which of these are considered to be nonionizing?
Electromagnetic Spectrum Non-ionizing
Types of Non-Ionizing Radiation Ultraviolet (UV) light Visible light Infrared (IR) light Microwaves Radiowaves
Non-Ionizing Radiation Terms z z z Energy Frequency Wavelength Frequency Energy 10 -18 m 3 x 1026 Hz 1. 24 x 1012 e. V 10 -10 m 3 x 1018 Hz 1. 24 x 104 e. V 10 -6 m 3 x 1014 Hz 1. 24 e. V 102 m 3 x 106 Hz 1. 24 x 10 -8 e. V
Ultraviolet (UV) Light Ultraviolet light has a wavelength on the order of 1 -100 nanometers (nm) This is the shortest wavelength of all nonionizing radiations
Ultraviolet (UV) Light Ultraviolet light cannot be seen by the human eye It is divided into 3 regions z z z UVA (most energetic) UVB UVC (least energetic)
Sources of Ultraviolet Light UV light is emitted naturally by the sun and stars It is produced artificially by electric lamps and light bulbs
Is Ultraviolet Light Dangerous? All UV light can damage skin and eyes Over-exposure can lead to sunburn and various kinds of cancers, including melanomas It can also lead to weakening of the immune system
Is Ultraviolet Light Dangerous? UV damage to fibrous tissue is often described as “photoaging” Photoaging makes people look older because their skin looses its tightness and it wrinkles
UV Effects by Region UV-A (400 -300 nm) z Pigmentation of skin or suntan UV-B (320 -280 nm) z z z Erythemal region Sunburn of skin Absorbed by cornea of eye (welder’s flash) UV-C (280 -220 nm) z Bacterial or germicidal effect
Protective Measures Ensure that skin and eyes are adequately protected (sunscreen, sunglasses, clothing) Never look directly at a source Operate UV lamps in light-tight conditions
Visible Light The wavelength of visible light ranges from 400 -700 nanometers Visible light occupies the smallest segment of the electromagnetic spectrum
Visible Light Visible light is comprised of various colors The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion
Visible Light Each color is characteristic of a different wavelength
Black vs. White Technically speaking, black and white are not colors at all Black is the absence of color White is the combination of all colors
Visible light health effects Retinal burns Color vision Thermal skin burns
Infrared (IR) Light The wavelength of infrared light ranges from 1 -100 microns When an object is not quite hot enough to radiate visible light, it will emit most of its energy in the infrared
Sources of Infrared Light Any object which has a temperature above absolute zero radiates in the infrared Even objects we think of as being very cold, such as an ice cube, emit infrared light
Sources of Infrared Light Even humans and animals emit infrared radiation
Visible Light vs. Infrared Light Some animals can “see” in the infrared These images give an idea of how different the world would look if we had infrared eyes
Is Infrared Light Dangerous? Heating of tissues in the body is the principal effect of infrared radiation Excessive infrared radiation can result in heat stroke and other similar reactions, especially in elderly or very young individuals
IR Effects by Region IR-A (0. 75 – 2. 5 nm) z z Penetrates skin to some extent Penetrate eyes to retina IR-B (2. 5 – 5 nm) z Almost completely absorbed by upper layers of skin & eyes IR-C (5 -300 nm) z z Thermal burns on skin & cornea Cataracts (glass blowers)
Microwave Radiation The wavelength of microwave radiation ranges from about 10 microns to 1 meter Microwaves have very low energies and very long wavelengths
Microwave Radiation Microwave radiation has many uses, including: z z z Cellular phones Highway speed control Food preparation
Limit for Microwave Ovens 5 m. W/cm 2 at 5 cm from surface http: //www. fda. gov/cdrh/radhlth/pdf/mwogdeft. pdf
Is Microwave Radiation Dangerous? Exposure to very high intensity microwaves can result in heating of tissue and an increase in body temperature (thermal effects) At low levels of exposure, the evidence for production of harmful effects (non-thermal effects) is unclear and unproven
Is Microwave Radiation Dangerous? Currently, exposure limits are based on preventing only thermal effects Further research is needed in order to learn more about non-thermal effects
Radiofrequency (RF) Radiation The wavelength of RF radiation (radiowaves) is greater than 1 meter
Radiofrequency (RF) Radiation Both microwaves and radiowaves are used in communication As a result, there is considerable overlap between what is identified as a radiowave and what is identified as a microwave
Is RF Radiation Dangerous? As with infrared light and microwave radiation, the primary health effects of RF radiation are considered to be thermal RF radiation may penetrate the body and be absorbed in deep body organs without the skin effects, which can warn an individual of danger
Static Magnetic Field Effects at Levels Below 0. 5 m. T and Greater Than 0. 5 m. T Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMR)
Static Magnetic Fields Introduction Static Magnetic Fields z Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging Increasingly used in Biomedical Research z z z in vivo analysis effectively displays soft tissue contrasts MRI is unobstructed by bone
Safety Concerns with Static Magnetic Fields Attraction of Loose Ferromagnetic Materials Surgical Implants z torqued, dislodged or rotated Pacemaker Interference Typically Seen Above 0. 5 m. T (5 Gauss)
SMF Exposure Limits / Guidelines ICNIRP z 200 m. T ü z 5000 m. T ü z 4000 m. T ü z Routine Patient Ceiling 60 m. T {2000 T} ü z Continuous general public exposure US FDA CDRH z ACGIH Limbs/extremities (ceiling) 40 m. T ü Whole body (averaged for day) 600 m. T {5000 T} ü z Whole body (8 hr-TWA) {Ceiling} Limbs (8 hr-TWA) {Ceiling} 0. 5 m. T ü Medical electronic devices
NMR Mapping 0. 5 m. T
Issues with Static Magnetic Fields < 0. 5 m. T: Space constraints impacts all involved Concerns of stopping attention at levels below 0. 5 m. T Impacts finite radiation protection programs resources Facility Incompatibilities
SMF Affects Below 0. 5 m. T
SMF Problems Frequently Occurred Screen “jitter” Other electronic interference Perceive Problem = Risk Dynamic Situation Can lead to other problems
SMF Recommendations Move “General Public” limit farther back Move equipment to lower field levels Solicit worker concerns Map field strengths to near background levels Routine assessments encouraged
SMF Recommendations (cont. ) Area postings / brochures Educate workers about anticipated interferences
SMF Conclusion Be aware of potential equipment effects below 0. 5 m. T Equipment incompatibilities may result in personnel management difficulties
A Quick Recap… 5 types of non-ionizing radiation include: z z z Ultraviolet (UV) light Visible light Infrared (IR) light Microwaves Radiowaves
What is a Laser? A device that produces light LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Laser Applications Consumer Products Laser Pointers Laser Printers CD Players
Laser Applications Medical- eye surgery, therapy for Carpel Tunnel Syndrome Industrial- welding, cutting
Light Basics Light travels in waves. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into sections based on wavelength.
What makes laser light different than conventional light? Laser light has several unique qualities: 1. Monochromatic 2. Directional 3. Coherent But what do these mean?
Monochromatic Light Monochromatic light is light consisting of one wavelength only. Monochromatic Polychromatic
Directional Light Directional light has very low divergence. Conventional light spreads in all directions, but laser light remains focused. Directional Non-Directional
Coherent Light Coherent light consists of waves that are in phase with each other.
Lasing Material Lasers contain a medium which is used to cause the monochromatic effect. There are several states of lasing medium z z Solid State- Crystal injected “dopant” Semiconductor- Diode laser Liquid- dye laser Gas- C 02 laser
Laser Construction Lasing Medium (gas, liquid, solid, semiconductor) Excitation Mechanism (power supply, flash lamp, laser) Feedback Mechanism (mirrors) Output coupler (semi-transparent mirror)
Laser Construction (con’t)
Laser Use Research • • Study of mechanisms at interfaces Detection of single molecules Medical/Dental • Eye surgery
Laser Use (con’t) Commercial • Supermarket checkout scanners • Determining site boundaries for construction Industrial • Cutting • Welding
Laser Hazard Classification ANSI Z 136. 1 -2000 Standard Class 1 (Exempt) • Incapable of producing damaging radiation levels Class 2 (Low power) • • • Eye protection is an aversion response Visible (400 -700 nm) CW upper limit is 1 m. W
Laser Hazard Classification ANSI Z 136. 1 -2000 Standard (con’t) Class 3 (Medium Power) • • • Divided into subclasses, 3 a and 3 b Hazardous under direct or specular reflection Non-hazardous under diffuse reflection Normally non fire hazard CW upper limit 0. 5 W
Laser Hazard Classification ANSI Z 136. 1 -2000 Standard (con’t) Class 4 (High Power) • • • Hazardous to eye and skin from direct viewing/contact, specular, and diffuse reflections Produce non-beam hazardous such as air contaminants Fire hazard
Bio-Effects Primary sites of damage z eyes z skin Laser beam damage can be z thermal (heat) z acoustic z photochemical
Eye Bio-Effects Three different ways for eye exposure Retina (visible and IR-A) z Cornea (UV-B, UV-C, IR-C) z Lens (UV-A) z
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t) • Visible (400 -700 nm) • Possible damage to Retina
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t) • Near-ultraviolet (100 -330 nm) • Possible damage to Cornea
Eye Bio-Effects (con’t) • IR (760 -3000 nm) • Possible damage to Lens
Skin Bio-Effects Skin Sensitivity • • Dermis (IR-A) Epidermis (UV-B, UVC)
How Often Do Accidents Occur?
General Laser Safety Wear appropriate protective eyewear Use minimum power/energy required for project Reduce laser output with shutters/attenuators, if possible Terminate laser beam with beam trap Use diffuse reflective screens, remote viewing systems, etc. , during alignments, if possible Remove unnecessary objects from vicinity of laser Keep beam path away from eye level (sitting or standing)
Non-Beam Hazards Chemical z Optical z Plasma radiation can be produced. Similar to welders flash Fire z Chemical used in dye lasers can be known carcinogens or toxic also maybe difficult to dispose Class 3 b and 4 lasers with high power outputs can cause fires Electrical z Most common, very high incident in maintenance
Engineering Control Measures Beam housings Activation Warning System Shutters Beam Stop or Attenuator Remote firing controls Interlocks
Administrative Control Measures Class 3 b and 4 Lasers Warning signs/labels SOPs Training Optical Paths Covered Class 2 and 3 a Lasers Warning Logo Information Label
PPE Control Measures Gloves Be wary of neck ties. Special clothing Eyewear must be for the appropriate laser wavelength, attenuate the beam to safe levels.
Emergency Procedure Shut down the laser system Provide for the safety of the personnel, I. e. first aid, CPR, etc. If necessary, contact the fire department Inform the Radiation Safety Division Inform the Principal Investigator DO NOT RESUME USE OF THE LASER SYSTEM WITHOUT APPROVAL OF THE LASER SAFETY OFFFICER
Irradiance E = Irradiance = W/cm 2 Ф = total radiation power W A = area a = beam diameter r = viewing distance Θ = beam divergence
Beam diameter D = a + r Θ a = beam diameter r = viewing distance Θ = beam divergence
Optical Density Log (incident power / transmitted power) OD = log (total H / TLV)
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