COS 320 Compilers David Walker The Front End
- Slides: 81
COS 320 Compilers David Walker
The Front End stream of characters stream of tokens Lexer abstract syntax Parser Type Checker • Lexical Analysis: Create sequence of tokens from characters (Chap 2) • Parsing: Create abstract syntax tree from sequence of tokens (Chap 3) • Type Checking: Check program for wellformedness constraints
Parsing with CFGs • Context-free grammars are (often) given by BNF expressions (Backus-Naur Form) – Appel Chap 3. 1 • More powerful than regular expressions – Matching parens • wait, we could do nested comments with ML-LEX! • still can’t describe PL structure effectively in ML-LEX • CFGs are good for describing the overall syntactic structure of programs.
Context-Free Grammars • Context-free grammars consist of: – Set of symbols: • terminals that denotes token types • non-terminals that denotes a set of strings – Start symbol – Rules: symbol : : = symbol. . . symbol • left-hand side: non-terminal • right-hand side: terminals and/or non-terminals • rules explain how to rewrite non-terminals (beginning with start symbol) into terminals
Context-Free Grammars A string is in the language of the CFG if and only if it is possible to derive that string using the following non -deterministic procedure: 1. begin with the start symbol 2. while any non-terminals exist, pick a non-terminal and rewrite it using a rule <== could be many choices here 3. stop when all you have left are terminals (and check you arrived at the string your were hoping to) Parsing is the process of checking that a string is in the CFG for your programming language. It is usually coupled with creating an abstract syntax tree.
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: S : : = S; S S : : = ID : = E S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) Elist : : = Elist , E
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me! ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM )
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S ID = E ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) Derive me! S ID = E oops, can’t make progress 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E E ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM )
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S S; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S S; S ID : = E ; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) S S; S ID = E ; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( Elist ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( E ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E Derive me!
non-terminals: S, E, Elist terminals: ID, NUM, PRINT, +, : =, (, ), ; rules: 1. S : : = S; S 2. S : : = ID : = E 3. S : : = PRINT ( Elist ) S S; S ID = E ; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( Elist ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( E ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) left-most derivation 4. 5. 6. 7. E : : = ID E : : = NUM E : : = E + E E : : = ( S , Elist ) 8. Elist : : = E 9. Elist : : = Elist , E S S; S S ; PRINT ( Elist ) S ; PRINT ( E ) S ; PRINT ( NUM ) ID = E ; PRINT ( NUM ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) right-most derivation Another way to derive the same string
Parse Trees • Representing derivations as trees – useful in compilers: Parse trees correspond quite closely (but not exactly) with abstract syntax trees we’re trying to generate • difference: abstract syntax vs concrete (parse) syntax • each internal node is labeled with a non-terminal • each leaf node is labeled with a terminal • each use of a rule in a derivation explains how to generate children in the parse tree from the parents
Parse Trees • Example: S S; S ID = E ; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( Elist ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( E ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) S S ID : = ; E NUM S PRINT ( L E NUM )
Parse Trees • Example: 2 derivations, but 1 tree S S; S ID = E ; S ID = NUM ; PRINT ( Elist ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( E ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) S S; S S ; PRINT ( Elist ) S ; PRINT ( E ) S ; PRINT ( NUM ) ID = E ; PRINT ( NUM ) ID = NUM ; PRINT ( NUM ) S S ID : = ; E NUM S PRINT ( L E NUM )
Parse Trees • parse trees have meaning. – order of children, nesting of subtrees is significant S S S ID : = ; E NUM S S PRINT ( L ) PRINT ( S ; L E E NUM ) ID : = E NUM
Ambiguous Grammars • a grammar is ambiguous if the same sequence of tokens can give rise to two or more parse trees
Ambiguous Grammars characters: 4 + 5 * 6 tokens: NUM(4) PLUS NUM(5) MULT NUM(6) E non-terminals: E terminals: ID NUM PLUS MULT E : : = ID | NUM |E+E |E*E I like using this notation where I avoid repeating E : : = E + E E NUM(4) NUM(5) * E NUM(6)
Ambiguous Grammars characters: 4 + 5 * 6 tokens: NUM(4) PLUS NUM(5) MULT NUM(6) E non-terminals: E E terminals: ID NUM PLUS MULT + E E NUM(4) E * NUM(6) NUM(5) E E : : = ID | NUM |E+E |E*E E E NUM(4) + * E E NUM(6) NUM(5)
Ambiguous Grammars • problem: compilers use parse trees to interpret the meaning of parsed expressions – different parse trees have different meanings – eg: (4 + 5) * 6 is not 4 + (5 * 6) – languages with ambiguous grammars are DISASTROUS; The meaning of programs isn’t well-defined! You can’t tell what your program might do! • solution: rewrite grammar to eliminate ambiguity – fold precedence rules into grammar to disambiguate – fold associativity rules into grammar to disambiguate – other tricks as well
Building Parsers • In theory classes, you might have learned about general mechanisms for parsing all CFGs – algorithms for parsing all CFGs are expensive • actually, with computers getting faster and bigger year over year, researchers are beginning to dispute this claim. – for 1/10/100 million-line applications, compilers must be fast. • even for 20 thousand-line apps, speed is nice – sometimes 1/3 of compilation time is spent in parsing • compiler writers have developed specialized algorithms for parsing the kinds of CFGs that you need to build effective programming languages – LL(k), LR(k) grammars can be parsed.
Recursive Descent Parsing • Recursive Descent Parsing (Appel Chap 3. 2): – aka: predictive parsing; top-down parsing – simple, efficient – can be coded by hand in ML quickly – parses many, but not all CFGs • parses LL(1) grammars – Left-to-right parse; Leftmost-derivation; 1 symbol lookahead – key ideas: • one recursive function for each non terminal • each production becomes one clause in the function
non-terminals: S, E, L terminals: NUM, IF, THEN, ELSE, BEGIN, END, PRINT, ; , = rules: 1. S : : = IF E THEN S ELSE S 4. L : : = END 2. | BEGIN S L 5. |; SL 3. | PRINT E 6. E : : = NUM
non-terminals: S, E, L terminals: NUM, IF, THEN, ELSE, BEGIN, END, PRINT, ; , = rules: 1. S : : = IF E THEN S ELSE S 4. L : : = END 2. | BEGIN S L 5. |; SL 3. | PRINT E 6. E : : = NUM Step 1: Represent the tokens datatype token = NUM | IF | THEN | ELSE | BEGIN | END | PRINT | SEMI | EQ Step 2: build infrastructure for reading tokens from lexing stream val tok = ref (get. Token ()) function supplied by lexer fun advance () = tok : = get. Token () fun eat t = if (! tok = t) then advance () else error ()
non-terminals: S, E, L terminals: NUM, IF, THEN, ELSE, BEGIN, END, PRINT, ; , = rules: 1. S : : = IF E THEN S ELSE S 4. L : : = END 2. | BEGIN S L 5. |; SL 3. | PRINT E 6. E : : = NUM datatype token = NUM | IF | THEN | ELSE | BEGIN | END | PRINT | SEMI | EQ val tok = ref (get. Token ()) fun advance () = tok : = get. Token () fun eat t = if (! tok = t) then advance () else error () Step 3: write parser => one function per non-terminal; one clause per rule fun S () = case !tok of IF => eat IF; E (); eat THEN; S (); eat ELSE; S () | BEGIN => eat BEGIN; S (); L () | PRINT => eat PRINT; E () and L () = case !tok of END => eat END | SEMI => eat SEMI; S (); L () and E () = eat NUM; eat EQ; eat NUM
non-terminals: S, A, E, L rules: 1. S : : = A EOF 2. A : : = ID : = E 3. | PRINT ( L ) 4. E : : = ID 5. | NUM 6. L : : = E 7. |L, E fun S () = A (); eat EOF and A () = case !tok of ID => eat ID; eat ASSIGN; E () | PRINT => eat PRINT; eat LPAREN; L (); eat RPAREN and E () = case !tok of ID => eat ID | NUM => eat NUM and L () = case !tok of ID => ? ? ? | NUM => ? ? ?
problem • predictive parsing only works for grammars where the first terminal symbol in the input provides enough information to choose which production to use – LL(1) • when parsing L, if !tok = ID, the parser cannot determine which production to use: 6. L : : = E 7. |L, E (E could be ID) (L could be E could be ID)
solution • eliminate left-recursion • rewrite the grammar so it parses the same language but the rules are different: S : : = A EOF A : : = ID : = E | PRINT ( L ) E : : = ID | NUM L : : = E |L, E
solution • eliminate left-recursion • rewrite the grammar so it parses the same language but the rules are different: S : : = A EOF A : : = ID : = E | PRINT ( L ) E : : = ID | NUM L : : = E |L, E L : : = E M M : : = , E M |
eliminating single left-recursion • Original grammar form: X : : = base | X repeat Strings: base repeat. . . • Transformed grammar: X : : = base Xnew : : = repeat Xnew | Strings: base repeat. . . Think about: what if you have mutually left-recursive variables X, Y, Z? What’s the most general pattern of left recursion? How to eliminate it?
Recursive Descent Parsing • Unfortunately, can’t always eliminate left recursion • Questions: – how do we know when we can parse grammars using recursive descent? – Is there an algorithm for generating such parsers automatically?
Constructing RD Parsers • To construct an RD parser, we need to know what rule to apply when – we are trying to parse a non terminal X – we see the next terminal a in input • We apply rule X : : = s when – a is the first symbol that can be generated by string s, OR – s reduces to the empty string (is nullable) and a is the first symbol in any string that can follow X
Constructing RD Parsers • To construct an RD parser, we need to know what rule to apply when – we are trying to parse a non terminal X – we see the next terminal a in input • We apply rule X : : = s when – a is the first symbol that can be generated by string s, OR – s reduces to the empty string (is nullable) and a is the first symbol in any string that can follow X
Constructing Predictive Parsers 1. Y : : = 2. | bb 3. X : : = c 4. |YZ next non-terminal seen X c X b X d 5. Z : : = d rule
Constructing Predictive Parsers 1. Y : : = 2. | bb 3. X : : = c 4. |YZ next non-terminal seen X c X b X d 5. Z : : = d rule 3
Constructing Predictive Parsers 1. Y : : = 2. | bb 3. X : : = c 4. |YZ next non-terminal seen 5. Z : : = d rule X c 3 X b 4 X d
Constructing Predictive Parsers 1. Y : : = 2. | bb 3. X : : = c 4. |YZ next non-terminal seen 5. Z : : = d rule X c 3 X b 4 X d 4
Constricting Predictive Parsers • in general, must compute: – for each production X : : = s, must determine if s can derive the empty string. • if yes, X Nullable – for each production X : = s, must determine the set of all first terminals Q derivable from s • Q First(X) – for each non terminal X, determine all terminals symbols Q that immediately follow X • Q Follow(X)
Iterative Analysis • Many compilers algorithms are iterative techniques. • Iterative analysis applies when: – must compute a set of objects with some property P – P is defined inductively. ie, there are: • base cases: objects o 1, o 2 “obviously” have property P • inductive cases: if certain objects (o 3, o 4) have property P, this implies other objects (f o 3; f o 4) have property P – The number of objects in the set is finite • or we can represent infinite collections using some finite notation & we can find effective termination conditions
Iterative Analysis • general form: – initialize set S with base cases – applied inductive rules over and over until you reach a fixed point • a fixed point is a set that does not change when you apply an inductive rule (function) – Nullable, First and Follow sets can be determined through iteration – many program analyses & optimizations use iteration – worst-case complexity is bad – average-case complexity can be good: iteration “usually” terminates in a couple of rounds
Iterative Analysis Base Cases “obviously” have the property
Iterative Analysis f apply function (rule) to things that have the property to produce new things that have the property f f f
Iterative Analysis Base Cases + things you get by applying rule to base cases have the property
Iterative Analysis Apply rules again
Iterative Analysis Apply rules again
Iterative Analysis Finally, you reach a fixed point
Iterative Analysis Example: • axioms are “obviously true”/taken for granted • rules of logic take basic axioms and prove new things are true axioms: “Dave teaches cos 441” “Dave teaches cos 320” “Dave is a great teacher” rule r: X is a great teacher / X teaches Y => Y is a great class
Iterative Analysis Example: • axioms are “obviously true”/taken for granted • rules of logic take basic axioms and prove new things are true axioms: “Dave teaches cos 441” “Dave teaches cos 320” r “cos 320 is a great class” “Dave is a great teacher” r “cos 441 is a great class” rule r: X is a great teacher / X teaches Y => Y is a great class
Iterative Analysis Example: • axioms are “obviously true”/taken for granted • rules of logic take basic axioms and prove new things are true Fixed Point Reached! axioms: “Dave teaches cos 441” “Dave teaches cos 320” r “cos 320 is a great class” “Dave is a great teacher” r “cos 441 is a great class” rule r: X is a great teacher / X teaches Y => Y is a great class
Nullable Sets • Non-terminal X is Nullable only if the following constraints are satisfied – base case: • if (X : = ) then X is Nullable – inductive case: • if (X : = ABC. . . ) and A, B, C, . . . are all Nullable then X is Nullable
Computing Nullable Sets • Compute X is Nullable by iteration: – Initialization: • Nullable : = { } • if (X : = ) then Nullable : = Nullable U {X} – While Nullable different from last iteration do: • for all X, – if (X : = ABC. . . ) and A, B, C, . . . are all Nullable then Nullable : = Nullable U {X}
First Sets • First(X) is specified like this: – base case: • if T is a terminal symbol then First (T) = {T} – inductive case: • if X is a non-terminal and (X: = ABC. . . ) then – First (X) = First (ABC. . . ) where First(ABC. . . ) = F 1 U F 2 U F 3 U. . . and » F 1 = First (A) » F 2 = First (B), if A is Nullable; emptyset otherwise » F 3 = First (C), if A is Nullable & B is Nullable; emp. . . » . . .
Computing First Sets • Compute First(X): – initialize: • if T is a terminal symbol then First (T) = {T} • if T is non-terminal then First(T) = { } – while First(X) changes (for any X) do • for all X and all rules (X: = ABC. . . ) do – First (X) : = First(X) U First (ABC. . . ) where First(ABC. . . ) : = F 1 U F 2 U F 3 U. . . and » F 1 : = First (A) » F 2 : = First (B), if A is Nullable; emptyset otherwise » F 3 : = First (C), if A is Nullable & B is Nullable; emp. . . » . . .
Computing Follow Sets • Follow(X) is computed iteratively – base case: • initially, we assume nothing in particular follows X – (when computing, Follow (X) is initially { }) – inductive case: • if (Y : = s 1 X s 2) for any strings s 1, s 2 then – Follow (X) = First (s 2) • if (Y : = s 1 X s 2) for any strings s 1, s 2 then – Follow (X) = Follow(Y), if s 2 is Nullable
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = nullable Z Y X X : : = a X : : = b Y e first follow
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = nullable Z no Y yes X no base case X : : = a X : : = b Y e first follow
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = nullable Z no Y yes X no X : : = a X : : = b Y e first follow after one round of induction, we realize we have reached a fixed point
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first Z no {} Y yes {} X no {} base case follow
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first Z no d Y yes c X no a, b round 1 follow
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first Z no d, a, b Y yes c X no a, b round 2 follow
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first Z no d, a, b Y yes c X no a, b follow after three rounds of iteration, no more changes ==> fixed point
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c {} X no a, b {} base case
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b after one round of induction, no fixed point
building a predictive parser Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b after two rounds of induction, fixed point (but notice, computing Follow(X) before Follow (Y) would have required 3 rd round)
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: a Z Y X b c d e
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: Z Y X a b Z : : = XYZ c d e
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: Z Y X a b Z : : = XYZ c d Z : : = d e
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: Z Y X a b Z : : = XYZ c d Z : : = d Y : : = c e
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X c d e Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : =
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b • if T First(s) then enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T • if s is Nullable and T Follow(X) enter (X : : = s) in row X, col T Build parsing table where row X, col T tells parser which clause to execute in function X with next-token T: a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X X : : = a X : : = b Ye c d e Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : =
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b d e What are the blanks? a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X X : : = a X : : = b Ye c Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : =
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b d e What are the blanks? --> syntax errors a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X X : : = a X : : = b Ye c Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : =
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b Is it possible to put 2 grammar rules in the same box? a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X X : : = a X : : = b Ye c d e Z : : = d Y : : = c Y : : =
Grammar: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d e Computed Sets: Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e nullable first follow Z no d, a, b {} Y yes c e, d, a, b X no a, b c, e, d, a, b Is it possible to put 2 grammar rules in the same box? a b Z Z : : = XYZ Y Y : : = X X : : = a X : : = b Y e c d e Z : : = d e Y : : = c Y : : =
predictive parsing tables • if a predictive parsing table constructed this way contains no duplicate entries, the grammar is called LL(1) – Left-to-right parse, Left-most derivation, 1 symbol lookahead • if not, of the grammar is not LL(1) • in LL(k) parsing table, columns include every klength sequence of terminals: aa ab ba bb ac ca . . .
another trick • Previously, we saw that grammars with left -recursion were problematic, but could be transformed into LL(1) in some cases • the example non-LL(1) grammar we just saw: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d e • how do we fix it? Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e
another trick • Previously, we saw that grammars with left -recursion were problematic, but could be transformed into LL(1) in some cases • the example non-LL(1) grammar we just saw: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d e Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e • solution here is left-factoring: Z : : = X Y Z Z : : = d W W : : = e Y : : = c Y : : = X : : = a X : : = b Y e
summary • CFGs are good at specifying programming language structure • parsing general CFGs is expensive so we define parsers for simple classes of CFG – LL(k), LR(k) • we can build a recursive descent parser for LL(k) grammars by: – – computing nullable, first and follow sets constructing a parse table from the sets checking for duplicate entries, which indicates failure creating an ML program from the parse table • if parser construction fails we can – rewrite the grammar (left factoring, eliminating left recursion) and try again – try to build a parser using some other method
- Front end in compiler design
- Front end and back end in compiler design
- Cos 320 princeton
- Cos 320
- Cos 320 degrees
- Cos 320 degrees
- Cos 320 degrees
- Cos 320
- Cos 320
- Cos 320
- Cos 320
- Eof
- Cos 320
- Cos 320°
- Cs 421 uiuc
- Binarymove c++
- Cousins of compiler
- Pros and cons of compilers and interpreters
- Finding and understanding bugs in c compilers
- Crafting a compiler
- Functions of compilers
- Yacc symbol table
- If an error occurs, what interpreter do?
- Cs 421 programming languages and compilers
- Dead front vs live front transformer
- Draw the symbol for a warm front
- Front
- Jika cos x = p x sudut lancip nilai sin 180° + x =
- Cos c -cos d
- Nilai dari sin 160° + sin 40° adalah
- Sen (a-b)
- Cos'è la fabula e cos'è l'intreccio
- Schema del testo narrativo
- Cos-1a + cos-1b formula
- Nilai 6 sin 112 5° sin 22 5° adalah
- Nilai dari sin 315° adalah
- Rounding and estimating
- What is front end rounding with decimals
- Radio front end
- Front end loading
- Front end board
- Snort front end
- Front-end innovation methodology
- Cdr
- Front end inspection
- Front end stage
- What is stroke volume
- End-diastolic volume vs end-systolic volume
- Descendorektostomie
- Yichao zhou
- End to end argument
- End to end accounting life cycle tasks
- End to end delay
- End to end delay
- End to end
- End-to-end construction of nlp knowledge graph
- End-to-end procurement life cycle
- Hình ảnh bộ gõ cơ thể búng tay
- Lp html
- Bổ thể
- Tỉ lệ cơ thể trẻ em
- Gấu đi như thế nào
- Tư thế worm breton
- Alleluia hat len nguoi oi
- Môn thể thao bắt đầu bằng từ đua
- Thế nào là hệ số cao nhất
- Các châu lục và đại dương trên thế giới
- Công thức tính độ biến thiên đông lượng
- Trời xanh đây là của chúng ta thể thơ
- Mật thư anh em như thể tay chân
- Làm thế nào để 102-1=99
- độ dài liên kết
- Các châu lục và đại dương trên thế giới
- Thơ thất ngôn tứ tuyệt đường luật
- Quá trình desamine hóa có thể tạo ra
- Một số thể thơ truyền thống
- Cái miệng bé xinh thế chỉ nói điều hay thôi
- Vẽ hình chiếu vuông góc của vật thể sau
- Nguyên nhân của sự mỏi cơ sinh 8
- đặc điểm cơ thể của người tối cổ
- Ví dụ về giọng cùng tên
- Vẽ hình chiếu đứng bằng cạnh của vật thể