Electron Configurations and Periodicity Chapter 7 Electron Spin

Electron Configurations and Periodicity Chapter 7

Electron Spin �In Chapter 6, we saw that electron pairs residing in the same orbital are required to have opposing spins. – This causes electrons to behave like tiny bar magnets. – A beam of hydrogen atoms is split in two by a magnetic field due to these magnetic properties of the electrons.

Electron Configuration �An “electron configuration” of an atom is a particular distribution of electrons among available sub shells. – The notation for a configuration lists the sub-shell symbols sequentially with a superscript indicating the number of electrons occupying that sub shell. – For example, lithium (atomic number 3) has two electrons in the “ 1 s” sub shell and one electron in the “ 2 s” sub shell 1 s 2 2 s 1.

Electron Configuration �An orbital diagram is used to show the orbitals of a sub shell are occupied by electrons. – Each orbital is represented by a circle. – Each group of orbitals is labeled by its sub shell notation. 1 s 2 s 2 p – Electrons are represented by arrows: up for ms = +1/2 and down for ms = -1/2

The Pauli Exclusion Principle �The Pauli exclusion principle, which summarizes experimental observations, states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers. – In other words, an orbital can hold at most two electrons, and then only if the electrons have opposite spins.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle �The maximum number of electrons and their orbital diagrams are: Sub shell Number of Orbitals Maximum Number of Electrons s (l = 0) 1 2 p (l = 1) 3 6 d (l =2) 5 10 f (l =3) 7 14

Aufbau Principle �Every atom has an infinite number of possible electron configurations. – The configuration associated with the lowest energy level of the atom is called the “ground state. ” – Other configurations correspond to “excited states. ”

Aufbau Principle �The Aufbau principle is a scheme used to reproduce the ground state electron configurations of atoms by following the “building up” order. – Listed below is the order in which all the possible sub-shells fill with electrons. 1 s, 2 p, 3 s, 3 p, 4 s, 3 d, 4 p, 5 s, 4 d, 5 p, 6 s, 4 f, 5 d, 6 p, 7 s, 5 f – You need not memorize this order. As you will see, it can be easily obtained.

Order for Filling Atomic Subshells 1 s < 2 p < 3 s < 3 p < 4 s < 3 d < 4 p < 5 s < 4 d < 5 p < 6 s

Orbital Energy Levels in Multi-electron Systems 3 d Energy 4 s 3 p 3 s 2 p 2 s 1 s

Aufbau Principle �The “building up” order corresponds for the most part to increasing energy of the subshells. – By filling orbitals of the lowest energy first, you usually get the lowest total energy (“ground state”) of the atom. – Now you can see how to reproduce the electron configurations of using the Aufbau principle. – Remember, the number of electrons in the neutral atom equals the atomic number, Z.

Aufbau Principle �Here a few examples. – Using the abbreviation [He] for 1 s 2, the configurations are Z=4 Z=3 Beryllium Lithium 1 s 22 s 2 1 s 22 s 1 or or [He]2 s 2 [He]2 s 1

Aufbau Principle �With boron (Z=5), the electrons begin filling the 2 p subshell. Z=5 Boron 1 s 22 p 1 or [He]2 s 22 p 1 Z=6 Carbon 1 s 22 p 2 or [He]2 s 22 p 2 Z=7 Nitrogen 1 s 22 p 3 or [He]2 s 22 p 3 Z=8 Oxygen 1 s 22 p 4 or [He]2 s 22 p 4 Z=9 Fluorine 1 s 22 p 5 or [He]2 s 22 p 5 Z=10 Neon 1 s 22 p 6 or [He]2 s 62 p 6

Aufbau Principle �With sodium (Z = 11), the 3 s sub shell begins to fill. Z=11 Z=12 Sodium Magnesium 1 s 22 p 63 s 1 1 s 22 p 23 s 2 or [Ne]3 s 1 or [Ne]3 s 2 – Then the 3 p sub shell begins to fill. Z=13 Aluminum Z=18 Argon 1 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 1 or [Ne]3 s 23 p 1 1 s 22 p 63 s 23 or [Ne]3 s 23 p 6

Configurations and the Periodic Table �Note that elements within a given family have similar configurations. – For instance, look at the noble gases. Helium Neon Argon Krypton 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 63 d 104 s 24 p 6

Configurations and the Periodic Table �Note that elements within a given family have similar configurations. – The Group IIA elements are sometimes called the alkaline earth metals. Beryllium Magnesium Calcium 1 s 22 s 22 p 63 s 2 1 s 22 p 63 s 23 p 64 s 2

Configurations and the Periodic Table �Electrons that reside in the outermost shell of an atom - or in other words, those electrons outside the “noble gas core”- are called valence electrons. – These electrons are primarily involved in chemical reactions. – Elements within a given group have the same “valence shell configuration. ” – This accounts for the similarity of the chemical properties among groups of elements.

Configurations and the Periodic Table �The following slide illustrates how the periodic table provides a sound way to remember the Aufbau sequence. – In many cases you need only the configuration of the outer electrons. – You can determine this from their position on the periodic table. – The total number of valence electrons for an atom equals its group number.

Configurations and the Periodic Table

Orbital Diagrams �Consider carbon (Z = 6) with the ground state configuration 1 s 22 p 2. – Three possible arrangements are given in the following orbital diagrams. 1 s 2 s 2 p Diagram 1: Diagram 2: Diagram 3: – Each state has a different energy and different magnetic characteristics.

Orbital Diagrams � Hund’s rule states that the lowest energy arrangement (the “ground state”) of electrons in a subshell is obtained by putting electrons into separate orbitals of the sub shell with the same spin before pairing electrons. – Looking at carbon again, we see that the ground state configuration corresponds to diagram 1 when following Hund’s rule. 1 s 2 s 2 p

Orbital Diagrams �To apply Hund’s rule to oxygen, whose ground state configuration is 1 s 22 p 4, we place the first seven electrons as follows. 1 s 2 s 2 p – The last electron is paired with one of the 2 p electrons to give a doubly occupied orbital. 1 s 2 s 2 p

Magnetic Properties �Although an electron behaves like a tiny magnet, two electrons that are opposite in spin cancel each other. Only atoms with unpaired electrons exhibit magnetic susceptibility. – A paramagnetic substance is one that is weakly attracted by a magnetic field, usually the result of unpaired electrons. – A diamagnetic substance is not attracted by a magnetic field generally because it has only paired electrons.

Periodic Properties �The periodic law states that when the elements are arranged by atomic number, their physical and chemical properties vary periodically. • We will look at three periodic properties: – Atomic radius – Ionization energy – Electron affinity

Periodic Properties �Atomic radius – Within each period (horizontal row), the atomic radius tends to decrease with increasing atomic number (nuclear charge). – Within each group (vertical column), the atomic radius tends to increase with the period number.

Periodic Properties �Two factors determine the size of an atom. – One factor is the principal quantum number, n. The larger is “n”, the larger the size of the orbital. – The other factor is the effective nuclear charge, which is the positive charge an electron experiences from the nucleus minus any “shielding effects” from intervening electrons.

Figure Representation of atomic radii (covalent radii) of the main-group elements.

Periodic Properties �Ionization energy – The first ionization energy of an atom is the minimal energy needed to remove the highest energy (outermost) electron from the neutral atom. – For a lithium atom, the first ionization energy is illustrated by: Ionization energy = 520 k. J/mol

Periodic Properties �Ionization energy – There is a general trend that ionization energies increase with atomic number within a given period. – This follows the trend in size, as it is more difficult to remove an electron that is closer to the nucleus. – For the same reason, we find that ionization energies, again following the trend in size, decrease as we descend a column of elements.

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Periodic Properties �Ionization energy – The electrons of an atom can be removed successively. • The energies required at each step are known as the first ionization energy, the second ionization energy, and so forth.

Periodic Properties �Electron Affinity – The electron affinity is the energy change for the process of adding an electron to a neutral atom in the gaseous state to form a negative ion. • For a chlorine atom, the first electron affinity is illustrated by: Electron Affinity = -349 k. J/mol

Periodic Properties �Electron Affinity – The more negative the electron affinity, the more stable the negative ion that is formed. – Broadly speaking, the general trend goes from lower left to upper right as electron affinities become more negative.

The Main-Group Elements �The physical and chemical properties of the main- group elements clearly display periodic behavior. – Variations of metallic-nonmetallic character. – Basic-acidic behavior of the oxides.

Group IA, Alkali Metals Largest atomic radii React violently with water to form H 2 Readily ionized to 1+ Metallic character, oxidized in air R 2 O in most cases Increasing reactivity • • •

Group IIA, Alkali Earth Metals �Readily ionized to 2+ �React with water to form H 2 �Closed s shell configuration Increasing reactivity �Metallic

Transition Metals �May have several oxidation states �Metallic �Reactive with acids

Group III A �Metals (except for boron) �Several oxidation states (commonly 3+) 4 Al(s) + 3 O 2(g) 2 Al(s) + 6 H+(aq) 2 Al 2 O 3(s) 2 Al 3+(aq) + 3 H 2(g)

Group IV A �Form the most covalent compounds �Oxidation numbers vary between 4+ and 4 -

Group V A �Form anions generally(1 -, 2 -, 3 -), though positive oxidation states are possible �Form metals, metalloids, and nonmetals

Group VI A �Form 2 - anions generally, though positive oxidation states are possible �React vigorously with alkali and alkali earth metals �Nonmetals

Halogens �Form monoanions �High electronegativity (electron affinity) �Diatomic gases Increasing reactivity �Most reactive nonmetals (F)

Noble Gases �Minimal reactivity �Monatomic gases �Closed shell

4 f 5 f ns 2 np 6 ns 2 np 5 ns 2 np 4 ns 2 np 3 ns 2 np 2 ns 2 np 1 d 10 d 5 d 1 ns 2 ns 1 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elemen