Unit VIII Pollution Air Pollution Atmospheric Structure Essentially

Unit VIII Pollution

Air Pollution

Atmospheric Structure • Essentially it is a thin sea of air that supports life – blocks UV radiation – moderates the climate – essential to the hydrologic cycle • Weight and Pressure – caused by gases and water vapor – weight is 14. 7 psi – pressure is 1 atm

Atmospheric Structure • Troposphere – all weather occurs here – 78% N, 21% O 2, 1% Argon, 0. 04% CO 2 – remaining is water vapor & trace gases • Stratosphere – home to the O 3 layer • Mesosphere • Thermosphere • Exosphere

Outdoor Air Pollution • Primary Air Pollution – Harmful substances emitted directly into the atmosphere • CO, SO 2, NO • Secondary Air Pollution – formed when primary air pollutants combine with each other or with a substance normally found in the atmosphere.

Outdoor Air Pollution

Outdoor Air Pollution

Outdoor Air Pollution • PM – Different liquid or solid particles suspended in the air • soil, soot, lead, asbestos, sea salt, sulfuric acid – Can be toxic/carcinogenic • small particles can become lodged in lungs • NOx – Greenhouse gas – Produced by chemical interactions between N and O at high temperatures

Outdoor Air Pollution • SOx – Causes acid deposition – Produced by chemical interactions between S and O at high temperatures • COx – Greenhouse gases • CO and CO 2

Outdoor Air Pollution • Hydrocarbons – Diverse group of organic compounds containing H and C • CH 4 – Can be related to greenhouse gases and photochemical smog

Outdoor Air Pollution • O 3 – Troposphere • Man made • 2° air pollutant • Component of photochemical smog – Stratosphere • Essential component that screens out UV • Destroyed by chlorine compounds – CFCs

Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution

Urban Air Pollution • Photochemical Smog – brownish-orange haze formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight, NOx, and hydrocarbons.

Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution • Low Level Exposure • eye and/or respiratory irritant • Can develop into chronic respiratory disease

Controlling Air Pollution • Electrostatic Precipitator – Removes PM

Controlling Air Pollution • Scrubbers – Removes SOx

Clean Air Act • Authorizes EPA to set limits on certain pollutants 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. PM SO 2 CO NOx O 3 Pb VOC – Emissions regulated by Title V permits • Credits program • Tragedy of the Commons

Clean Air Act 1970 -2006

Ozone Depletion • The “ozone hole” is a seasonal thinning – First identified over Antarctica in 1985 • >160 consumer products break down by UV radiation and release Cl atoms – Cl destroys O 3 • CFC emissions are continuing to decrease – Montreal Protocol of 1987 – Copenhagen Protocol of 1992 • Satellite pictures in 2000 indicated it was recovering – Full recovery isn’t expected until 2050

Ozone Depletion • Effects of increased UV exposure: – skin cancer – eye cataracts – weakened immunity – increased acid deposition – increased smog – lower crop yield – reduction in phytoplankton – degradation of plastics, paints, and other exposed materials

Acid Deposition • SOx and NOx react with H 2 O in atmosphere to form acidic compounds • Industries & Power Plant Emissions – disperse air pollutants w/ tall smokestacks – transports acidic chemicals downwind • SO 2 and NO 2 • Acid Deposition – rain & snow dissolve acidic compounds – then returned to the soil

Acid Deposition

Acid Deposition • Acids and Animals – harmful to most living organisms • <5. 6 terrestrial • <5. 5 aquatic – thins egg shells – enzymes for digestion stop functioning, respiratory tissues decay, organisms die • Acids and Trees – can stress & weaken trees in forests – decrease soil productivity

Acid Deposition

Outdoor Air Pollution

Indoor Air Pollution • EPA studies show many common pollutants are 5 -100 x higher inside homes & offices.

• Asbestos Indoor Air Pollution – commonly used as a fire retardants • also found in ceiling tiles – fibers lodge in the lungs and causes lung cancer – EPA banned the use of asbestos in 1989 • Abatement program • CO, NO 2, O 3 • Cigarette Smoke • Lead Based Cleaning Solvents

• Mold Indoor Air Pollution – recent studies show 100% of homes have mold – some species can be deadly • Formaldehyde – formerly used as a preservative – found in laminate flooring adhesive – used as a color preservative • Radon – naturally occurring radioactive gas in soil and rock – alpha particles enter through cracks in the foundation

Water Pollution

Water Pollution • No standard checklist to define healthy water. • Different nations have different standards. • US - all levels of government monitor using a variety of techniques. – Federal standards set by Congress and EPA • Clean Water Act of 1972 – updated several times since then – Florida standards set by FDEP

Sewage • Enrichment/Eutrophication – Fertilization of a water body by high levels of N and P • Increase in Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) – Amount of O 2 needed by microorganisms to decompose biological wastes – As BOD increases, DO decreases – BOD= amount of oxygen used by aerobic bacteria to help decay organic matter

Disease-Causing Organisms • Infectious organisms that cause diseases that originate in wastes • Common diseases:

Disease-Causing Organisms • Monitored by testing for presence of E. coli in water – Fecal coliform testing • Indicates presence of pathogenic organisms

Sediment Pollution • Excessive amounts of suspended soil particles – Originates from erosion – – • Agriculture, logging, overgrazing, mining, construction Lowers turbidity Limits light penetration Covers aquatic plants Brings insoluble toxins into the water

Inorganic Nutrients • Primarily N and P – Primary sources • Human/animal wastes & fertilizer runoff – Causes • Eutrophication and increased BOD

Organic Compounds • Chemicals that contain C – Oils, pesticides, solvents, plastics, industrial chemicals, VOCs

Organic Chemicals • VOC Distribution in the US

Inorganic Chemicals • Contaminants that contain elements other than carbon • Do not degrade easily – Pb • Old paint, industrial pollutants, leaded gasoline – Hg • Coal fired power plants – bioaccumulation

Radioactive Substances • Contain atoms of radioisotopes that emit radiation – Nuclear plants – Mining – Natural sources

Thermal Pollution • Heated water produced during industrial processes – Temperature affects reproductive cycles, digestion & respiration rates. – Warm water holds less DO

Agricultural Pollution • Agriculture is leading source of water pollution – Animal wastes – Plant residues – Chemical pesticides • Nearly all streams and rivers in US are polluted w/ agricultural pesticides

Municipal Water Pollution

Industrial Wastes • Food processing plants – High BOD • Paper Mills – High BOD & toxic compounds • Some industries recover toxins before discharge

Groundwater Contamination

Drinking Water Purification • Majority of municipal water supplies treated in US • Treated water distributed to customers

Drinking Water Purification • Cl – Prevents contamination of drinking water – Chlorine byproducts linked to numerous cancers, miscarriages, & birth defects • Fluoridation – Prevents tooth decay – Linked to cancer & kidney disease

Sewage Treatment • Sewer lines bring sewage to treatment plants

Sewage Treatment • Primary Treatment – Removal of suspended and floating particles by mechanical processes and filters. • Removes suspended solids and BOD • Secondary Treatment – Treatment through aerobic bacteria to decompose suspended organic materials • Reduces BOD • Sewage Sludge – Solids remaining after 1°& 2°treatment

Sewage Treatment • Tertiary Treatment – Advanced treatment methods sometimes employed before discharge. • Reduces N & P • Bleaching – Used on all effluent*** • Cl, O 3, or UV Light – Removes majority of remaining biological pathogens

Sewage Treatment • Septic Tanks – used primarily for household wastes • serve ~ ¼ of all homes in the US – relies on breakdown of wastes through bacteria – discharges into nearest water body or a drainfield

Sewage Treatment • Septic Tanks

Water Pollution Regulation • Clean Water Act - NPDES – National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System – Must obtain permits to discharge untreated wastewater – Point Sources • Industrial and mining discharges – heavy metals to thermal pollution • > 1/3 of all water use in US is for power production. • Industries must have a permit for discharging into surface waters (none allowed into ocean). – Limits set by models determining how much pollution a water body can endure. • Most numbers are speculation and challenged in court.

• 2 goals NPDES: – Eliminate discharge – Attain water quality levels safe for fishing and swimming – Successfully improved quality from point source

Water Pollution • Clean Water Act – TMDL – Total Maximum Daily Loads – Non-Point Sources • harder to identify and regulate - usually multiple offenders and government is left with cleanup tab.

In Florida… Water Classifications • Class I – potable water • Class II – shellfish harvesting • Class III – recreational usage • suitable for swimming and fishing • Class IV – agricultural irrigation • Class V – navigation only

Solid & Hazardous Waste

Solid Waste • US generates more solid waste per capita than any other country – 2. 1 kg person per day • • • Mining & Oil Production ~75% Agriculture ~13% Industry ~9. 5% Municipal ~1. 5% Sewage Sludge ~1%

Composition of Municipal Solid Wastes

Disposal of Solid Waste • Three methods – Sanitary Landfills – Incineration – Recycling

Sanitary Landfill • Compacting and burying waste under a shallow layer of soil • Most common method of disposal • Problems – Methane gas production by microorganisms – Contamination of surface water & ground water by leachate – Not a long-term remedy – Few new facilities being opened (NIMBY) – Closing a full landfill is very expensive

Sanitary Landfill

Incineration • Volume of solid waste reduced by 90% • Produces heat that can make steam to generate electricity – Produce less carbon emissions than fossil fuel power plants • Byproduct – Bottom ash – Fly ash

Composting • Municipal Solid Waste Composting – Food scraps – Sewage sludge – Agricultural manure – Yard waste • Reduces yard waste in landfills • Can be sold or distributed to community

Waste Prevention • Four Goals – (1) Reduce the amount of waste – (2) Reuse products – (3) Recycle materials – (4) Repair products

Reducing Waste • Source reduction – Products designed and manufactured to decrease the volume of solid waste • Dematerialization – Progressive decrease in the size and weight of a product as a result of technological improvements

Reusing Products • Refilling glass beverage bottles – Heavier glass that costs more • Japan reuses almost all bottles – Reused ~20 times on average

Recycling Materials • Every ton of recycled paper saves: – 17 trees – 7000 gallons of water – 4100 kwatt-hrs of energy – 3 cubic yards of landfill space • Recycle – Glass bottles, newspapers, steel cans, plastic bottles, cardboard, office paper

Recycling • Recycling Paper – US recycles 66% – Many developed countries are higher • Recycling Glass – US recycles 34% – Costs less than new glass (right)

Recycling • Recycling Aluminum – Making new can from recycled one costs far less than making a brand new one – 66. 7% of aluminum was recycled in 2013 • Recycling Metals other than Aluminum – Lead, gold, iron, steel, silver and zinc – Metallic composition is often unknown • Makes recycling difficult

Recycling • Recycling Plastic – 12% of all plastic was recycled in 2007 – 30. 5% of plastic recycled in 2012 • Less expensive to make from raw materials – 37% of PET was recycled in 2007 • Mostly water and soda bottles

Reusing • Reusing Tires – Few products are made from old tires • • • Playground equipment Trashcans Garden hose Carpet Roofing materials – 36% of tires are currently reused to make other products

Hazardous Waste • Any discarded chemical that threatens human health or the environment – Reactive, corrosive, explosive or toxic chemicals • Types of Hazardous Waste – Dioxins – PCBs – Radioactive waste Love Canal Toxic Waste Site

Hazardous Waste

Management of Hazardous Waste • Current Management Policies – Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976, 1984) • Governs disposal of solid and hazardous waste – Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980) • Identification and clean-up of hazardous waste sites • Commonly known as Superfund

Superfund Program • Cleaning up existing hazardous waste: – 400, 000 waste sites – Leaking chemical storage tanks and drums (right) – Pesticides dumps – Piles of mining wastes • Must be cleaned up

Management of Hazardous Waste • Superfund National Priorities List – 1, 322 sites on the list (1/5/15) – States with the greatest number of sites • • • New Jersey (116) California (98) Pennsylvania (95) New York (93) Michigan (69) Florida (52)

Management of Hazardous Waste • (1) Source reduction • (2) Conversion to less hazardous materials • (3) Long-term storage

Case Studies • Love Canal, NY – Leaking chemicals from abandoned dump site – Contaminated entire town • Renamed Black Creek Village – Sparked creation of Superfund Act • Bhopal, India – World’s worst industrial accident – Explosion at Union Carbide Pesticide Plant • Released methyl isocyanate into atmosphere • Covered 78 km 2