Nigeria Videos Initial interview Goodluck Jonathan https www

Nigeria

Videos • • • Initial interview: Goodluck Jonathan https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=f. UAEBfhzjg. M Second Interview https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Zl. Xbk. Rnv. H 88 http: //www. cnn. com/videos/world/2015/04/01/intvnigeria-elections-amanpour-muhammadu-buhari. cnn 2015 election results http: //www. cnn. com/videos/business/2015/04/01/wbtnigeria-economy-election-seruma. cnn/video/playlists/intlboko-haram-nigeria/ Buhari Speaks https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=yb. BWv. Lj 47 eg

Basics • • • • Most populous country in Africa, about 135 million. Capital: Abuja Pervasive “national question” Over 2. 3% economic growth rate Official language: English Size of CA/NV/AZ combined One of least homogenous countries in world (#129, US is #82). – 250 ethnic groups Urban areas highly sophisticated Major oil producer, US gets 25% of its oil Country has $40 B debt Literacy Rate: Male: 75. 7% Female: 60. 6% Life expectancy: 51 years 5. 66 children per woman GDP per capita: $1, 500 Ruled for longer by soldiers than by government 2/3 actually vote

I. Comparative Government Questions • In what ways is Nigeria typical of a 3 rd world country? • How does it compare to other sub-Saharan African countries? – How is the legacy of colonization still reflected in Nigerian politics? – How have the frequent shifts from civilian to military rule and back again exacerbated the country’s many social and economic problems?

• How does Nigeria compare to other multiethnic countries, like Russia and Iran? • Do their cleavages coincide or cross-cut? • How have ethnic differences made the establishment of democracy so difficult in Nigeria? What could be done about that? • What role has a federal system played in managing these differences?

• How does Nigeria handle its oil resources compared to other oil rich nations, like Iran, Mexico, and Russia? Is it a rentier state? • Why does Nigeria remain one of the poorest countries in the world despite its massive oil and natural gas reserves?

II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

• Only recently independent 1960 • History of • tradition-based kingdoms • colonialism • military dictatorship • strong democracy movements coupled with tendency to totalitarian military rule • Vast resources, but tremendous poverty • Religious, regional and ethnic tension: • challenge to formation of national identity • Major legitimacy issues

The Sources of Public Authority and Political Power • The ‘national question’: • how should the country be governed? • should it be a single nation? • Lacking constitutionalism : the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles • • 9 constitutions since 1914 Legitimacy: • relative newness of country • history of • ethnic and religious division and conflict • economic exploitation by elites • use of military force • strong tendency toward fragmentation • rule of law vs. personalized authority of the strongman

• In North, sharia has served as a source of legitimacy, but religious law has not transformed society • 2007 election widely seen as fraudulent – frustration and cynicism in electorate – international criticism – added challenges to legitimacy

Political Traditions • 3 historical eras: pre-colonial, colonial and independence • pre-colonial: 800 -1860 – trade connections – early influence of Islam – kinship-based politics – complex political identities – democratic impulses

The Colonial Era: 1860 – 1960 – British Colony – indirect authoritarian rule – interventionist state – individualism/personalization – Christianity – intensification of ethnic politics, divide and conquer method of rule

Artificial Nation • When Europeans split Africa up into colonies, they drew artificial political boundaries based on their own convenience, without consideration of the people who lived there. • As a result, ethnic groups that didn’t get along were often grouped in the same colony, while in other cases, a single ethnic group might be split between several different colonies. • These boundaries remained in place upon independence, leading to conflicts and civil wars between different groups even today. • The British empire forged over 250 different ethnic groups together in Nigeria • Nigeria may be a state, but is it a nation?

Post-independence: 1960 to present – parliamentary-style government replace by a presidential system – intensification of ethnic conflict – military rule – personalized rule/corruption – federalism – economic dependence on oil

History to Independence • Precolonial: trade connections via Niger, kinship based politics, complex political identities in many groups, democratic accountability early on • Colonized by UK: authoritarian rule by chiefs only accountable to UK. Led to chiefs becoming individualistic, spread of Christianity, ethnic politics • 1833: Slave trade abolished • 1861: British consulate, Lagos • 1886: Royal Niger Company. By 1893, protectorate over Yoruba. 1900—all • British introduce education, only in South, leads to northerners being perceived as “backwards” • 1946 -47: Richards Constitution calls for central legislature + 3 regional houses • 1951: 2 nd (Mac. Pherson) Constitution • 1954: 3 rd (Lyttleton) Constitution: Federation • Independence October 1, 1960 (UK)

History after Independence • 1960 -66: 1 st Republic. Balewa PM, assassinated in 1966. Ironsi replaces. Assassinated. Gowon becomes PM. • 1966 -70: Civil War (eastern Igbo region failed in secession bid) • 1970 -79: No stable regimes, Gowon gone in ’ 75, replaced by Muhammed. Obasanjo takes over in 1976. • 1979 -83: 2 nd Republic, Shagari elected. • 1983: Shagari overthrown • 1985 -93: Babangida rule; fail to create 3 rd Republic, resigned • 1993 -98: Sani Abacha leads coup & military dictatorship • 1999: 4 th Republic, Obasanjo elected President • 2003: Obasanjo reelected • 2010: Goodluck Jonathan assumes office

Recent History • Rocketing oil prices provided the Nigerian government with a chance to go on a spending spree of reckless proportions and the country quickly became a hotbed of foreigners rushing to Nigeria with their dash (bribe) money. • By the early 1980 s the world recession sent oil prices plummeting again and plunged Nigeria into a cycle of massive debt, soaring inflation, large-scale unemployment and widespread corruption. In 1993 the country came under the iron-fisted rule of General Abacha. • Obasanjo had consolidated Nigeria's position as West Africa's political heavyweight and a key player in the Commonwealth, but the country was still beset by ethnic and religious violence, especially in Lagos, the Central Plateau and the southern oilfields • The Nigerian Constitution, the one promulgated on May 29, 1999 and currently in operation is, like its predecessors (1960, 1963, 1979, 1989, 1995), a very bulky document, a product of efforts by the ruling blocs to accommodate all their major factions. – The Abdulsalami Abubakar regime bequeathed the present 1999 Constitution which was largely drafted by a few hand-picked persons. – In presidential elections in April 2003 Obasanjo claimed an overwhelming victory, although independent observers expressed reservations over irregularities and intimidation.

The 1 st Republic • Modeled after UK system with American components • House of Representatives acted like Commons PM and Cabinet • Senate (like Lords, had tribal chiefs) • 3 things like America: 1) Federation 2) Written Constitution 3)Supreme court could review laws • Was British Commonwealth member, changed to Republic in 1963, President is now head of state

2 nd Republic (1979)/3 rd Republic (1992)/4 th Republic (1999) #2: • Successful Presidential candidate must win a majority of the popular vote with at least 255 of the vote in 12 of 19 states • Dissolved in 1983 coup: Buhari banned political party activity, dissolved legislature • Babangida takes over 1985, continues policies, but plans for return to civil rule. #3: • 19 states become 30, National Assembly and Senate elected 1992 with new constitution. • 1993: Presidential election. Abiola wins, election result nullified. #4 • 4 th republic— 1999, Obasanjo wins • Obasnajo reelected in 2004, about 12 candidates killed in elections for Parliament in 2003.

III. Institutions

The Nigerian State � Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory) � Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) �Executive has been most dominant traditionally � Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch � 2 nd, 3 rd, & 4 th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary � Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

• The institutions have rarely lasted for more than a few years. • Weakness of state to ensure law and order • Failed State? • Does not have many resources— 82 percent of its revenue comes from sale of oil or profits from multinational petroleum companies • Spoils at the control of the state • Personalization of Power • Person in position more important than formal responsibilities and powers of office

Is Nigeria a failed state? • No Nigeria is not yet a failed state. The only problem with Nigeria, is unprepared, poor and bad leaders. All those who have ruled Nigeria are dealers not leaders. Most of Nigerian politicians, had no day jobs before they entered politics.

– American-style presidency • Responsible for managing day-to-day operations – Bicameral National Assembly similar to U. S. Congress • One single member districts, one composed of state representatives – Anglo-American style judiciary • Network of local and state courts with a Supreme Court, Sharia appellate court option for states

Executive Branch � 1979, 2 nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British model �Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule � Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party system �U. S. presidential model with two-term limits �Appoints a Cabinet (approved by Senate); veto legislation, which can be overridden, Cabinet members must come from all of the 36 states. �President: Head of state AND Head of Government. �Leads bloated, corrupt bureaucracy (British had developed system and let Nigerians take lower jobs) � 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule �Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985 �Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993 �Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

� Military Rule � Patrimonialism – 7 military rulers have all ruled – Generals/Presidents head of differently patron-client system – All promised transition to democracy – Dispense government jobs and �Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General resources as rewards to Abubakar in 1999 delivered political supporters democratic transition – Cabinet positions & – Generals Buhari (1983 -85), bureaucratic chiefs part of Babangida (1985 -93), and Abacha president’s patronage system (1993 -98) used repression and violence – Patrimonialism in Nigeria is – All military & civilian regimes unstable which has led to concentrated power in hands of the recurring coups executive

• • • • • Nigerian Leaders James Wilson Robertson 15 Jun 1955 - 16 Nov 1960 Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe 1 Oct 1960 - 1 Oct 1963 Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe 1 Oct 1963 - 16 Jan 1966 Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi 16 Jan 1966 - 29 Jul 1966 military Yakubu Gowon 1 Aug 1966 - 29 Jul 1975 military Murtala Ramat Mohammed 29 Jul 1975 - 13 Feb 1976 military Olusegun Obasanjo 14 Feb 1976 - 1 Oct 1979 military Shehu Shagari 1 Oct 1979 - 31 Dec 1983 Muhammadu Buhari 31 Dec 1983 - 27 Aug 1985 military Ibrahim Babangida 27 Aug 1985 - 4 Jan 1993 military Ibrahim Babangida 4 Jan 1993 - 26 Aug 1993 military Ernest Shonekan 26 Aug 1993 - 17 Nov 1993 Sani Abacha 17 Nov 1993 - 8 Jun 1998 military Abdulsalam Abubakar 9 Jun 1998 - 29 May 1999 military Olusegun Obasanjo 29 May 1999 -29 May 2007 Umaru Musa Yar'Adua 29 May 2007 – 2010, died in office Goodluck Jonathan 2010 -2015, assumed office, elected once, lost re-election Muhammadu Buhari 2015

Bureaucracy � British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period � Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy � Civil service sector continued to grow after independence � Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common. � Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, an extreme version called Prebendalism. � A term to describe the sense of entitlement that many people in Nigeria feel they have to the revenues of the Nigerian state. Elected officials, government workers, and members of the ethnic and religious groups to which they belong feel they have a right to a share of government revenues. � According to theory of prebendalism, state offices are regarded as prebends that can be appropriated by officeholders, who use them to generate material benefits for themselves and their constituents and kin groups. . . � As a result of that kind of patron-client or identity politics, Nigeria has regularly been one of the lowest ranked nations for political transparency by Transparency International in its Corruption Perceptions Index.

Nigeria’s Uncivil Service • Culture of corruption • Patron-clientelism (prebendalism) • prebendalism: the corrupt use of high-level government position to gain personal wealth • patron (political leader) builds loyalty among clients (lesser elites) by granting favors denied to others • The Nigerian term for Pork Barrel politics is called chop-chop • Elite Culture – Bourgeois class controls state through wealth and insider status. – Willing to violate “rules” of democratic culture to maintain status

� Parastatals – Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico) – Provide commercial and social welfare services – Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system – Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies – Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum � State Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure – In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism – Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions – Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Legislature � A parliamentary system until 1979 � Replaced by a bicameral legislature � Nigerian legislature under military governments have had no power, under civilian government they have been unable to check the power of the president � Legislature is a follower in the political process instead of a leader � Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

� Senate � 109 Senators � 3 from each of the 36 states � 1 from Abuja district �Directly elected by popular vote �Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse �Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003 elections �Approves high level presidential appointments � National Assembly �Formerly called House of Representatives � 360 member representatives �Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote �Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women (2003) �Both serve 4 year terms

Judiciary � Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy � Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system � Judicial review was suspended � Presidential cronies appointed as justices � Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory � Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court � Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British model � Cases: �In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system �In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

Political Elite • Military • Northeners dominate officer corps and are welleducated, having attended Sandhurst military academy • Traditional leaders of the various states • Positions are hereditary; they are well-educated and cosmopolitan • Well-educated professionals that make up civil service • Nigerian Youth Service Corps (NYSC) • University and graduate school students perform a year of service outside their state (usually in rural areas) • Successful business is also a path to elite status

Military � Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria � “Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch � “Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power. � Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders. �Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around appointed senior officers through his patronage system � Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character. � Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

• "The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership. “ – Chinua Achebe • This is not only applicable to Nigeria but Africa as a whole.

IV. Citizens, Society, & the State

Nigerian Political Culture • Kleptocratic regime—based on corruption, mismanagement, criminalized society, theft and stealing rampant. People are skeptical, hate politicians • Patron-clientelism (prebendalism or “personal fiefdoms”): practice of exchanging political and economic favors between political clients and lesser elites, generally by ethnicity and religion • Underdeveloped civil society. State controls many aspects of life • Fragmented and polarized—masses illiterate, elite sophisticated, all identify as Nigerians, yet trade organizations all linked to parties • Pro-democracy but pro-Army: Looms large even during civilian administration, often seen as efficient and capable vis-à-vis politicians • Limited role for women (6. 4% in House); but women influential in homes • Elections not free/fair; ‘ 93 elections declared invalid by loser • Media freedom increasing during 4 th Republic (after 1999). Radio #1. • Bureaucracy small and corrupt but improving • Cleavages: Ethnicity, religion, region (Muslim north, Christian west and east), urban/rural, social class. Language a big barrier.

Other Forms of Political Participation Protests – MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) – goal: greater oil profits should go to people of the Delta states – methods: violence, kidnapping, siphoning, gun running – effects: foreign oil companies have left Nigeria or cut production – Army has attempted to contain the rebels, but violence continues

Boko Haram • Founded in 2002, the organization seeks to establish a "pure" Islamic state ruled by sharia law, putting a stop "Westernization. ” • Name translates to “Western education is sinful” • The group is known for attacking Christians and government targets, bombing churches, attacking schools and police stations, kidnapping western tourists, but has also assassinated members of the Islamic establishment. • Violence linked to the Boko Haram insurgency has resulted in an estimated 10, 000 deaths between 2001 and 2013 • April 2014, 320 school girls are kidnapped, 50 escape • 270 missing

Malala • http: //www. cc. com/video-clips/a 335 nz/the-daily-show-with-jonstewart-malala-yousafzai • #bringbackourgirls • http: //www. cc. com/video-clips/6 ng 6 xf/the-daily-show-with-jonstewart-hashtag-activism----bringbackourgirls • Noah Trevor Boko Haram • http: //www. cc. com/video-clips/380 ulg/the-daily-show-with-jonstewart-boko-haram-in-nigeria • Thieves of State • http: //thedailyshow. cc. com/videos/q 52 fvv/sarah-chayes • Extended Interview • http: //www. cc. com/shows/the-daily-show-with-jonstewart/interviews/b 6364 d/exclusive-sarah-chayes-extendedinterview

Cleavages • • • One of the world’s most fragmented societies Lack of cross-cutting cleavages Sub-national cleavage -> violent conflict Identity-based civil war Conflicts have undermined legitimacy and governance Sources of cleavage: • • • ethnicity religion region urban/rural social class

250 Different Tribal Groups • Tension between modernity and tradition • Geography: 6 population zones – NW: Hausa-Fulani, Muslim – NE: Kanuri and other smaller groups, Muslim – Middle Belt: many small groups, religious mix – SW: Yoruba, 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, 20% other – SE: Igbo, Christian (RC and Protestant) – S: Niger River delta, many small groups • Overall: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian 10% Catholic

Linkage Institutions • Since democratization is so incomplete, linkage institutions are new and fluid

Political Parties � Factionalism led to creation of many political parties � Failure to create coherent party system � Parties formed and faded around personalities � Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious cleavages � Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998 � In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in twothirds of the states in the 1998 election � This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

� People’s Democratic Party (PDP) �Well-established Party �Began running candidates in 1998 �Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North) �Obasanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election �PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors throughout the country �Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP � All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) �General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo �Received about 32% of the vote �His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast �Morphed into All Progressives Congress, APC

Elections & Electoral Procedures � Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national. � National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states. � National Elections �Presidential Elections �After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another in 2003. �If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place. �President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states �A purely regional candidate can not win �Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

Elections • 2007 Presidential Election – Umaru Yar'Adua won the highly controversial election for the ruling People's Democratic Party (PDP) – Election observers from the EU described the elections as "the worst they had ever seen anywhere in the world", with "rampant vote rigging, violence, theft of ballot boxes and intimidation – Large scale protests occurred challenging the victory • 2011 Presidential Election – The election follows controversy as to whether a Muslim or Christian should be allowed to become president given the tradition of rotating the top office between the religions and following the death of Umaru Yar'Adua, who was a Muslim, and Goodluck Jonathan, a Christian, assuming the interim presidency. – Following the election widespread violence took place in the northern parts of the country

2015 Presidential Election • • • Muhammadu Buhari, All Progressives Congress, winner 53% vote, beat incumbent Goodluck Jonathan Buhari is a retired Nigerian Army major general and was Head of State of Nigeria from 1983 to 1985, after taking power in a military coup d'état. The elections were first scheduled to be held on 14 February 14, 2015. The electoral commission postponed it by six weeks to due to the poor distribution of Permanent Voter Cards, and also to curb ongoing Boko Haram insurgency in certain north-eastern states This marked the first time in the history of Nigeria that an incumbent president lost to an opposition candidate in a general election.

Muhammadu Buhari • • • Former military dictator, described himself as a "converted democrat“ Been a part of 4 coups, including one in 1966 that toppled the parliamentary government of Nigeria known as the First Republic May have committed genocidal atrocities during the invasion of the Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War in 1967 He unsuccessfully ran for the office of President in the 2003, 2007 and 2011 general elections From 1976 -1980 was the Federal Commissioner for Petroleum and Natural Resources. During his tenure , 2. 8 billion Naira allegedly went missing from the accounts and former President Ibrahim Babangida accused Buhari of being responsible for this fraud Buhari is a Muslim Previously, Buhari gave his support for the total implementation of Sharia in the country. He was quoted in 2001 as saying, "I will continue to show openly and inside me the total commitment to the Sharia movement that is sweeping all over Nigeria", he then added: "God willing, we will not stop the agitation for the total implementation of the Sharia in the country. " While campaigning for the 2015 general election, Buhari stated that he favored freedom of religion, that every Nigerian should be free and secure to practice their different religions. Buhari has denied allegations that he has a radical Islamist agenda Buhari pledged to enhance security in Nigeria, against Boko Haram, key reason he won the election

� Legislative Elections �Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja �Elected by direct popular vote � 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives) �Elected from single member districts by plurality vote �Regional representation dominates in both houses. �Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature �Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

Election Fraud � Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay � Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be � Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPP – Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) �Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names to be fraudulent during 2003 elections �International teams concluded elections were corrupt �Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes �Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

Interest Groups � Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics � A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties � Religious interest groups important in Nigeria �Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member �Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court system � Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

Mass Media � Nigeria has well-developed, independent press � General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994 � Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country � Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south � Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians �All 36 states have their own radio stations

Comparative literacy rates China (2000 census) Males: 95. 1% Females: 86. 5% Iran (‘ 02 est. ) Males: 83. 5% Females: 70. 4% Mexico (’ 03 est. ) Males: 92. 4% Females: 89. 6% Nigeria (‘ 02 census) Males: 75. 7% Females: 60. 6% Russia (‘ 02 census) Males: 99. 7% Females: 99. 2% UK (‘ 03 est. ) Males: 99% Females: 99%

Limits of the Free Press • Relatively free press (even under military regimes) – Various military regimes have cracked down. • Low literacy rate so few buy papers • Few can afford to buy a newspaper. • Television has spread largely through cable and satellite services. – Their impact is limited because there is only 7 million sets of any kind in the country.

V. Political and Economic Change

Political Liberalization

Democratization: – change since Nigeria’s last military regime, 1999 • some privatization • alleviation of poverty: public wages increased, some illegally diverted funds returned to state treasury – some checks and balances between branches of government • Obasanjo’s bid to change constitution to allow 3 rd term rejected by legislature – some judicial independence – revival of civil society – independent media • has made it more difficult to hide electoral fraud – peaceful transition of power • intertwining of economic and political problems: main stumbling block to democratization

Leadership Transitions, 1960 - present dates ruler type of govt transition ‘ 60 –’ 66 (First Tafawa Balewa (PM) (Muslim Hausa-Fulani) Republic Coup; Balewa assassinatied 1966 Johnson Aguyi-Ironsi (Christian Igbo) Military Dictatorship Coup; Ironsi assassinated ’ 66 - ’ 75 Yakubu Gowon (Christian, middle belt) Military Dictatorship Coup; Gowon replaced ’ 75 – 76 Murtala Muhammed (Muslim, Hausa-Fulani) Military Dictatorship Coup; Muhammed assassinated ’ 76 – ‘ 79 Olusegun Obasanjo (Christian Yoruba) Military Dictatorship Democratic election Republic)

Children during the Civil War

Leadership Transitions, 1960 - present dates ruler type of govt transition ’ 79 – ’ 83 Shehu Shagari (Muslim Hausa. Fulani) Presidential democracy coup; Shagari replaced ’ 83 – ’ 85 Muhammed Buhari (Muslim Hausa. Fulani) Military dictatorship coup; Buhari replaced ’ 85 – ’ 93 Ibrahim Babangida (Muslim middle belt) Military dictatorship coup; Babangida resigned ’ 93 – ’ 98 Sani Abacha (Muslim, North) Military dictatorship Abacha died ’ 99 – ’ 07 Olesegun Obasanjo (civilian) Presidential democracy term limited ’ 07 - 10 Umru Yar’Adua Presidential democracy

• Abubakar and Obasanjo – So far, successful movement to democracy began in 1999 – Abubakar retired in May 1999. – Election and reelection of Obasanjo in 1999 and 2003 were beginnings of stability. – Election of Yar’Andua has not helped long-term prospects. • • • Criticisms of his victory Part of elite since childhood Refused to relinquish power when his health faded – Goodluck Jonathan • Assumed power and then won a free, open, election

Economic Liberalization • Just minor steps forward

Economic Issues � Oil �Oil wealth during the 1970 s gave Nigeria international leverage �OPEC member �Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970 s �Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop �DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus � Structural Adjustment � 1980 s, Nigeria seeks assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis �World Bank & IMF involvement �Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy, decrease dependence on oil �Privatize parastatals �Cut government spending �“Shock Treatment” not very successful �Parastatals still under government control �Debt repayment had to be restructured

Economic Development and Structural Adjustment – No dramatic steps have been taken to improve standard of living; economic failure reflects corruption. – Export of “primary” products – Cost of imported goods have increased—food, manufactured goods, and all investment capital. – Plummeting oil prices in late 1980 s; up in 2008, and down again in 2009

Attempts to remove the fuel subsidy • 2011 the government attempted to liberalize its economy by removing the fuel subsidy for its citizens • The change was meet with mass protest • Nigeria restored fuel subsidy to quell nationwide protests • President Goodluck Jonathan’s government lowered oil costs to about $2. 75 a gallon after series of strikes paralyzed country

Import substitution has not worked well. – Shortage of skilled labor, expensive parts and repairs and corruption made it difficult to have infrastructure buildings. – Agricultural production has not increased.

– Structural adjustment’s record is mixed. • • • Babangida’s two-year structural-adjustment program Today there is more investment capital; but debt remains high, and interest on loans take up 1/3 of the budget. Economic control outside of country or in hands of elite

• Global economic crisis, 2008: – good news: • successful bank reform initiative in Obasanjo’s second term • debt actually reduced under structural adjustment • agricultural production and prices remained strong – bad news: • decrease in oil prices led to currency devaluation • Stock Exchange declines, housing prices dropped, international tourism dried up • inability to provide electricity privatization of power companies reversed

Reforms � Economic Reforms of the late 1990 s �Further privatization of state-owned industry �Limitations on economic controls of the central government �Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury �Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria �Increase in public wages �Hope of decreasing instances of corruption �Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices

VI. Public Policy

Public Policy � Top-down policy-making process. � Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelism � “Assumption” that military/political elite serve only their own self-interest � Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous � Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officials � State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes: �“Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys � Top-down practices established by British during colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain � Democratic rule: requires that political leaders assume responsibility for welfare of constituents, not patrons

federal character – federalism: desirable in theory • power shared, representation enhanced, contact points with government increased, democratic rule achieved – “federal character” in Nigeria: recognize people of all ethnicities, religions and regions, taking their needs into account – Federal character embodied in Nigerian constitution �Electoral representation, regional thresholds, �Senators represent diverse states �President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts – Negative effects of federalism: • divides rather than unifies – Legislative branch suffers from gridlock • Federalism bloats bureaucracy and promotes corruption – Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups

Demand for Devolution � Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governments �Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources �Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited �Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of local and state governments � This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners �North has few resources and very little revenue to share �Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs

�President Obasanjo had promised to create more states (36 currently) – Defuse ethnic-based political conflict (Federalist 10) �States have devolved from 12, 19, 21, 30, 36 �Capital moved from coastal Lagos to Abuja to satisfy demands from groups �More state governments cost money �Current federalism creates a lot of competition of money from government leading to a system called “chop-chop” politics or “log rolling” and “pork barrel” politics in the US �History of Civil War

Abuja Video just do 3 minutes • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=eq. Lt. Vmn sfmc

Federalism in Nigeria, 9 minutes • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=y. XD_Vj. O UWvk

Nigerian Foreign Policy • US-Nigeria fairly good relations since 1960 • Bad infrastructure doomed Nigeria by late 1960 s: no investment deterioration economic collapse political instability • Oil makes it a global level power • Then 1970 s oil boom led to 1980 s debt • Center of drug trade/drug traffic—US needs cooperation • Very key regional player (OAU: Organization of African Unity) • Wants help with HIV/AIDS • Regional instability in Liberia and Sierra Leone mitigated by ECOWAS, may help • 1985: Babangida regime developed an economic structural adjustment program with help from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (Int’l Bank for Reconstruction and Development)—sought to restructure and diversify the Nigerian economy. • Government pledged to privatize para-statels • Shock treatment has had mixed effects, debt has been restructured several times, large national debt still a big problem

The Niger Delta and Royal Dutch Shell • • • The Niger Delta, the delta of the Niger River in Nigeria, is a densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil. The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. Nigeria is Africa's biggest petroleum producer The delta system is highly threatened by oil spills and other consequences of oil exploration. Other threats include coastal urbanization, industrialization, domestic and industrial waste discharges, coastal erosion, problems associated with aquaculture, and crowding out of native species by the invasive water hyacinth The "Royal Dutch/Shell Group, " commonly known as Shell, is an amalgam of over 1, 700 companies all over the world. Shell includes companies like Shell Petroleum of the USA, Shell Nigeria, Shell Argentina, Shell South Africa, etc. Shell Nigeria is one of the largest oil producers in the Royal Dutch/Shell Group. 80% of the oil extraction in Nigeria is the Niger Delta, the southeast region of the country. The Delta is home to many small minority ethnic groups, including the Ogoni, all of which suffer egregious exploitation by multinational oil companies, like Shell provided over 50% of the income keeping the Nigerian dictatorship in power.

Environmental Issues • Environmentalists targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta • In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied Chevron. Texaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days • Ken Saro-Wiwa, environmental leader, assassinated

• Economic issues – Country depends on oil prices, 82% of government revenue comes from oil – Nigeria’s wealth has been squandered – country is deep in debt, people live in poverty – “disappearance” of oil revenue: complicated by ethnic and regional hostilities and widespread distrust of the government – “revenue sharing”: allow government to collect oil revenue and pool them into a ‘federal account’ • theoretically, entire country would benefit • practically, Niger Delta region objects strongly – a Rentier State: • (a) economy heavily supported by state • (b) state heavily dependent on ‘rent’ from other countries • (c) state ‘leases’ its resources • “rent –seeking behavior”: individuals, groups, and communities compete for the government’s hand outs – reinforces patronclientelism – most Nigerians are cut out, left to participate in the informal economy

NIGERIA ANSWERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. C B D A E E

NIGERIA ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. E 6. E 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. D

NIGERIA ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. E 6. E 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. E 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D

NIGERIA Practice Test ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. E 6. E 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. E 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. E 22. D 23. B 24. C 25. A 26. B 27. E 28. D 29. A 30. A

NIGERIA HW ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. E 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. E 8. B 9. A 10. D 11. B 12. C 13. E 14. A 15. E 16. E 17. B 18. C 19. E 20. Para statals

Iran Homework ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. D 4. A 5. E 6. E 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A 11. C 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. E 16. C 17. A 18. C 19. B 20. D 21. E 22. D 23. B 24. C 25. A 26. B 27. E 28. D 29. A 30. A

IRAN ANSWERS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C B A E D

IRAN ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. A 4. E 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. E

IRAN ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. A 4. E 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. E 11. A 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. C

IRAN ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. A 4. E 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. E 11. A 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. C 16. D 17. A 18. C 19. E 20. B

IRAN Practice Test ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. A 4. E 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. E 11. A 12. D 13. E 14. B 15. C 16. D 17. A 18. C 19. E 20. B 21. B 22. D 23. A 24. C 25. E 26. A 27. C 28. D 29. E 30. B

Iran Answers

Test Review

Terms Iran Nigeria Bonyads- parastatals Revolution of 1979 Velayat-e-faqih Sharia v Qanun Law Rentier State Revolution of Rising Expectations • Shia Islam • Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) • Parastatals • Patron Client System • Prebendalism (patrimonialism) • State corporatism • Loyalty pyramids • Kinship based politics • Military in the government • The national question • MEND • • •

People Iran Nigeria • The Pahlavi dynasty, Reza Shah • Ayatollah Khomeini • Ayatollah Khamenei • Mahmoud Ahmadinejad • Hassan Rouhani • Hidden Iman • • Boko Haram Olusegun Obasanjo Muhammadu Buhari Goodluck Jonathon

FRQ Topics • Democratic theocracy in Iran, fusion of church and state, jurist guardianship, Supreme Leader • Federalism in Nigeria • Military Rule in Nigeria • Ethnic divisions in Nigeria, coinciding impact- Civil War, Iran cross cut • Rentier Oil Economies • Compare election methods of Presidents • Democratization: Iran 1979, Nigeria 1999

Iran Homework ANSWERS 1. C 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. B 7. B 8. A 9. C 10. A 11. B 12. D 13. B 14. C 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. C 19. E 20. A 21. D 22. D 23. Sharia 24. Oil 25. Majlis 26. Guardian 27. Ayatollah

NIGERIA HW ANSWERS 1. C 2. B 3. E 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. E 8. B 9. A 10. D 11. B 12. C 13. E 14. A 15. E 16. E 17. B 18. C 19. E 20. Para statals

House of Representatives % Senate Seats % Seats People's Democratic Party 54. 5 223 53. 7 76 All Nigeria Peoples Party 27. 4 96 27. 9 27 Alliance for Democracy 8. 8 34 9. 7 6 United Nigeria People's Party National Democratic Party 2. 8 2 2. 7 - 1. 9 1 1. 6 - All Progressives Grand 1. 6 Alliance People's Redemption Party 0. 8 2 1. 5 - 1 0. 7 - vacant 1 Total 360 109