Developmental Psychology Methods longitudinal studies cross sectional design

Developmental Psychology Methods: longitudinal studies, cross sectional design, clinical interviews, etc. Major concerns: nature vs. nurture, continual vs. discontinuous, critical periods

Last Year’s Developmental Theorists • Cognitive Development—Piaget, Baillargeon, Vygotsky (socially informed) • Social development—Attachment—Bowlby and Ainsworth, Lifespan Development— Erikson • Sexual Development—Freud, Horney, Money and Erhardt, Mead

Neurobiological Brain Development and Neuroplasticity Theories • Tell me again about neurons. • Tell me again about neuroplasticity. • Dendritic branching is most significant in childhood and adolescence. • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=7 jp. Xx. T 1 Md 08 at minute 39 • Interaction with loving and responsive caregivers contributes to healthy brain development. • Listen to http: //www. npr. org/blogs/health/2014/02/20/280237 833/orphans-lonely-beginnings-reveal-how-parentsshape-a-childs-brain

Brain Development • Brain doubles in size from birth to young adult hood and folds become more complex, especially in cognition and emotion areas (PET and MRI).

Chugani (1999) PET scans—glucose metabolism in newborn babies Little activity in cerebral cortex (executive function) Activity in brain stem and thalamus (reflexes) Activity in limbic system--amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex (emotions, memories, and bonding areas attachment) • Lower brain levels developed first and then higher levels— 6 to 9 months increased activity in frontal lobes, prefrontal areas of cortex, and improved cognitive competence. • http: //www. dana. org/Cerebrum/2004/Fine. Tuning_the_Baby_Brain/ and http: //phy. ucsf. edu/~houde/coleman/chugani. pdf • •

Bachevalier et al. (1999) • http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/P MC 2913301/

Case (1991) • Brain changes between five and seven enable the frontal lobes to coordinate activities of other brain centers so more complex behaviors possible—attention control, forming explicit plans, self-reflecting • Observing humans with damage to frontal lobes and experimental research with animals —unable to plan ahead or stick to plans, no self-control, easily distracted.

Giedd (2004) • • MRI scans, longitudinal study, healthy children 95% of brain formed when child is around five or six, but prefrontal cortex starts growing again in adolescence. PFC is last to mature and responsible for cognitive processes such as planning, impulse control, direction of attention, and decision making. gray matter development between the age of 4 -21 years using quantitative four-dimensional maps and time-lapse sequences. Thirteen healthy children for whom anatomic brain MRI scans were obtained every 2 years, for 8 -10 years, were studied. http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/15148381 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides accurate anatomical brain images without the use of ionizing radiation, allowing longitudinal studies of brain morphometry during adolescent development. Results from an ongoing brain imaging project being conducted at the Child Psychiatry Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health indicate dynamic changes in brain anatomy throughout adolescence. White matter increases in a roughly linear pattern, with minor differences in slope in the four major lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). Cortical gray matter follows an inverted U-shape developmental course with greater regional variation than white matter. For instance, frontal gray matter volume peaks at about age 11. 0 years in girls and 12. 1 years in boys, whereas temporal gray matter volume peaks at about age at 16. 7 years in girls and 16. 2 years in boys. The dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, important for controlling impulses, is among the latest brain regions to mature without reaching adult dimensions until the early 20 s. The details of the relationships between anatomical changes and behavioral changes, and the forces that influence brain development, have not been well established and remain a prominent goal of ongoing investigations. http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/15251877 http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=Bhv 3 b. A_q. G 24

Waber (2007) • MRI Study of Normal Brain Development • Longitudinal, 450 healthy children aged 6 -18, began in 1999 • MRI scans and battery of cognitive function tests (processing, memory, reading, calculation, IQ, and psychosocial) • Age predicts performance. Steep increase in function from age six but levelled off between 10 and 12. • http: //stbb. nichd. nih. gov/pdf/NIH_MRI_neurops ychological. pdf

Stathearn et al. (2001) • Child neglect associated with delayed cognitive development and head growth in young children. • http: //pediatrics. aappublications. org/content /108/1/142

Rosenzweig and Bennet (1972) • • Brain changes in response to experience Reports a study in which rats placed in enriched or impoverished environments for 4 -10 wk. differed in brain anatomy and chemistry. Ss with enriched experience had heavier and thicker cerebral cortexes, greater total activity of acetylcholinesterase but less activity per unit of tissue weight, greater activity of cholinesterase, more glial cells, larger cell bodies and nuclei, more dendritic spines, larger synaptic junctions, and increased RNA/DNA ratios. The greatest differences were found in the occipital cortex. It is suggested that daily 2 -hr enrichment periods may be effective if the rat is stimulated to interact with objects in the environment. Changes were not caused by variations in amount of handling, stress, or maturation rate. (Psyc. INFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) • http: //psycnet. apa. org/psycinfo/197222480 -001 • http: //neur 2201. unsw. wikispaces. net/file/v iew/plasticity. pdf/156591175/plasticity. pdf

Strengths and Weaknesses of neurobiological theories? • Say what?

Cognitive Development • Piaget and his methods • Child is active scientist, builds mental representations (schemas), stage theory • Genetically based schemas (sucking and grasping as babies) to thinking schemas • Adaptation in the form of assimilation—new information integrated into existing cognitive schemas or accommodation—existing schemas modified to fit new information or new schemas are created. • Sensorimotor-object permanence, preoperational-egocentricism, conservation, concrete operational, formal operational • Piaget and Inhelder (1956) mountain task with doll, at six different viewpoints • Egocentricism, conservation

Object permanence in young infants: further evidence. (Baillargeon and De. Vos, 1991) • • Abstract: Recent evidence suggests that 4. 5 - and even 3. 5 -month-old infants realize that objects continue to exist when hidden. The goal of the present experiments was to obtain converging evidence of object permanence in young infants. Experiments were conducted using paradigms previously used to demonstrate object permanence in 5. 5 -month-old infants and 6. 5 -month-old infants. In one experiment, 3. 5 -month-old infants watched a short or a tall carrot slide along a track. The track's center was hidden by a screen with a large window in its upper half. The short carrot was shorter than the window's lower edge and so did not appear in the window when passing behind the screen; the tall carrot was taller than the window's lower edge and hence should have appeared in the window but did not. The infants looked reliably longer at the tall than at the short carrot event, suggesting that they (a) represented the existence, height, and trajectory of each carrot behind the screen and (b) expected the tall carrot to appear in the screen window and were surprised that it did not. Control trials supported this interpretation. In another experiment, 4. 0 month-old infants saw a toy car roll along a track that was partly hidden by a screen. A large toy mouse was placed behind the screen, either on top or in back of the track. The female infants looked reliably longer when the mouse stood on top as opposed to in back of the track, suggesting that they (a) represented the existence and trajectory of the car behind the screen, (b) represented the existence and location of the mouse behind the screen, and (c) were surprised to see the car reappear from behind the screen when the mouse stood in its path. A second experiment supported this interpretation. The results of these experiments provide further evidence that infants aged 3. 5 months and older are able to represent and to reason about hidden objects. http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/1786712

Hughes (1975) • Policeman Doll Study • http: //www. simplypsychology. org/preoperati onal. html

Mc. Carrigle and Donaldson (1974) • Naughty teddy study • http: //www. simplypsychology. org/concreteoperational. html

Strengths and Limitations of Piaget’s theory? • Say what?

Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach to cognitive development Zone of proximal development, scaffolding, cooperative learning http: //www. simplypsychology. org/vygotsky. htm l

Which is better biological, cognitive, or socio-cultural theories? • Say what?

Cognitive Development as per Social and Environmental Variables • SES, parenting, nutrition, stimulating environments, pollution, etc.

Farah et al. (2005) • http: //www. iom. edu/~/media/Files/Activity% 20 Files/Children/Neuro. Effects. Children/Farah. pdf

Consider Krugman. • http: //www. nytimes. com/2008/02/18/opinio n/18 krugman. html? _r=0

Bhoomika et al. (2008) • • • Methods: Twenty children identified as malnourished and twenty as adequately nourished in the age groups of 5– 7 years and 8– 10 years were examined. NIMHANS neuropsychological battery for children sensitive to the effects of brain dysfunction and age related improvement was employed. The battery consisted of tests of motor speed, attention, visuospatial ability, executive functions, comprehension and learning and memory Results: Development of cognitive processes appeared to be governed by both age and nutritional status. Malnourished children performed poor on tests of attention, working memory, learning and memory and visuospatial ability except on the test of motor speed and coordination. Age related improvement was not observed on tests of design fluency, working memory, visual construction, learning and memory in malnourished children. However, age related improvement was observed on tests of attention, visual perception, and verbal comprehension in malnourished children even though the performance was deficient as compared to the performance level of adequately nourished children. http: //www. behavioralandbrainfunctions. com/content/4/1/31

Wertheimer (2003) • http: //www. childtrends. org/wpcontent/uploads/2003/05/Child_Trends 2003_05_01_RB_Poor. Families. pdf

Werner and Smith (1992) • http: //www. pathwaysrtc. pdx. edu/pdf/fp. S 050 4. pdf

Pungello et al. (2006) • Abecedarian Project • http: //abc. fpg. unc. edu/

Consider. • http: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=6 i 105 vk. X Vok

ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES • Rosenzweig again…

Liu et al. (2000) • Nature Neuroscience 3, 799 - 806 (2000) Maternal care, hippocampal synaptogenesis and cognitive development in rats. Dong Liu, Josie Diorio, Jamie C. Day, Darlene D. Francis & Michael J. Meaney • We report that variations in maternal care in the rat promote hippocampal synaptogenesis and spatial learning and memory through systems known to mediate experience-dependent neural development. Thus, the offspring of mothers that show high levels of pup licking and grooming and arched-back nursing showed increased expression of NMDA receptor subunit and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) m. RNA, increased cholinergic innervation of the hippocampus and enhanced spatial learning and memory. A cross-fostering study provided evidence for a direct relationship between maternal behavior and hippocampal development, although not all neonates were equally sensitive to variations in maternal care. • http: //www. nature. com/neuro/journal/v 3/n 8/abs/nn 0800_799. html

Farah et al. (2008) • http: //www. psych. upenn. edu/~mfarah/Devel opment-Enviro. Stim. Parental. Nurt. pdf

Attachment • Bowlby (1973) • Internal working model—ideas of attachment figures and expectations, ideas about self, ideas about how self and others relate • http: //www. simplypsychology. org/bowlby. ht ml • Schaffer and others, too • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=KVsk. Ajr. C k. SU

Attachment • Remember Ainsworth—strange situation paradigm (1978), student of Bowlby. • Ganda Project (1969)—naturalistic observation of 28 mothers in Uganda over nine months, interviewed mothers and measured maternal sensitivity to infant’s (15 to 24 months) signals and needs, replicated in USA in 1971 with 26 families— 70% secure, 10% ambivalent, 20% avoidant • http: //www. simplypsychology. org/mary-ainsworth. html • Campos et al. (1983) found 62% secure, 15% ambivalent, and 15% avoidant • Main and Solomon (1986) added Type D disorganized/disoriented attachment

Kagan and Thomas and Chess • Temperaments • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=CGj. O 1 K wlt. Ow Thomas and Chess—easy, difficult, slow to warm up: http: //www. acamedia. info/sciences/sciliterat ure/origin_of_personality. htm

Brazelton (1975) • Observational study of mothers and babies during their interaction, found that both imitated each other, took turns to initiate new movements=interactional synchrony

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) • http: //psychteacheraqa. blogspot. com/2013/0 4/cultural-variations-in-attachment-van. html • Review of 32 worldwide studies, involving 8 countries and over 2000 infants; in Japan, ambivalent was more common but no avoidant; secure was most common in West

Hazan and Shaver (1987) • “Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process” • experienced differently because of variations in their attachment histories—continuity of • “inner working models”—early to later • Newspaper, love quiz— 56% respondents secure • Read and evaluate: http: //www 2. psych. ubc. ca/~schaller/Psyc 591 Readings/Haz an. Shaver 1987. pdf • http: //www. psy. miami. edu/faculty/dmessinger/c_c/rsrcs/r dgs/attach/hazanandshaver. pdf

Feeney, Noller and Callan (1994) • http: //citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/viewdoc/downloa d? doi=10. 1. 1. 324. 2280&rep=rep 1&type=pdf • Attachment patterns in stable couples tend to be secure; attachment patterns seem to be flexible and may change; the relationship, stable and satisfying or negative, can lead to a change in internal working models of self and others.

Deprivation and Trauma • DEPRIVATION--physical, emotional, or social; often related to institutionalization, poverty, parental problems e. g. alcoholism or mental illness • TRAUMA—powerful shock e. g. divorce, death of a parent, physical or sexual abuse, natural disasters, war

Carion et al. (2009) • Objective Youth who experience interpersonal trauma and have posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) develop cognitive deficits that impact their development. Our goal is to investigate the function of the hippocampus in adolescents with PTSS during a memory processing task.   Methods Twenty-seven adolescents between the ages of 10– 17 years (16 with PTSS and 11 healthy controls) encoded and retrieved visually presented nouns (Verbal Declarative Memory Task) while undergoing f. MRI scanning.  Results The PTSS group demonstrated reduced activation of the right hippocampus during the retrieval component of the task. Further, severity of symptoms of avoidance and numbing correlated with reduced left hippocampal activation during retrieval.  Conclusions  Decreased activity of the hippocampus during a verbal memory task may be a neurofunctional marker of PTSS in youth with history of interpersonal trauma. The results of this study may facilitate the development of focused treatments and may be of utility when assessing treatment outcome for PTSS. • http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC 2910941/

Yehuda et al. (2001) • • • Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Abstract: Among the adverse mental health consequences of childhood trauma is the risk related to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adulthood. Other risk factors for PTSD. including parental trauma exposure and parental PTSD, can also contribute to the experience of child trauma. We examined associations between childhood trauma and PTSD in 51 adult children of Holocaust survivors and 41 comparison subjects. in consideration of parental trauma exposure and parental PTSD. We also examined these variables in relation to 24 -hr urinary cortisol levels. Adult offspring of Holocaust survivors showed significantly higher levels of self-reported childhood trauma, particularly emotional abuse and neglect. relative to comparison subjects. The difference was largely attributable to parental PTSD. Self-reported childhood trauma was also related to severity of PTSD in subjects, and emotional abuse was significantly associated with 24 -hr mean urinary cortisol secretion. We conclude that the experience of childhood trauma may be an important factor in the transmission of PTSD from parent to child. http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pubmed/11523857

English and Romanian adoptees study (1990 s)— 324 Romanian adoptees • http: //www. nuffieldfoundation. org/english-and-romanianadoptee-study • http: //www. kcl. ac. uk/iop/depts/mrc/research/theenglisha ndromaniandoptee(era)project. aspx • Rutter et al. (2004)— 144 6 y. o. children • Rates of cognitive impairment and disinhibited attachment behavior • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=ig. C 9 R 45 TS 5 E • http: //www. apa. org/monitor/feb 04/doearly. aspx • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=r. FMZlj. G 2 LEA • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=98 Bw. Gol. Md. YM • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=VDR 5 xp. LEx-U

Perry and Pollard (1997) • “Altered brain development following global neglect in early childhood”—CT scans. • http: //www. sakkyndig. com/psykologi/artvit/p erry 1997. pdf • http: //www. ou. edu/cwtraining/assets/pdf/ha ndouts/2010/Altered%20 brain%20 developme nt%20 following%20 global%20 neglect. pdf

Resilience • Rutter (1990) and Schoon et al. (2002): maintaining adaptive functioning in spite of serious risk factors • Wyman et al. (2000): a child’s achievement of positive developmental outcomes and avoidance of maladaptive outcomes under adverse conditions • Risk factors and protective factors (temperament, close relationship, social support)—revisit Werner and Smith (2005) Kauai study

Wright and Masten (2006) • Not a single trait but multiple contextual factors • file: ///C: /Users/cmcnamar/Downloads/97814614 36607 -c 1. pdf • http: //www. esc 19. net/brac/military_family_reso urces/Masten%20 and%20 Obradovic%20 Compet ence%20 and%20 Resilience%20 in. Development%2 02006. pdf • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=GBMet 8 o. Iv XQ

Schoon and Bartley (2008) • Examine factors and processes that enable individuals to beat the odds—situational rather than dispositional in order to avoid blaming the victim. • How to promote resilience by removing obstacles and creating opportunities

The Triple P—Positive Parenting Program • http: //www. triplep. net/glo-en/home/ • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=VF 7 i 8_sx. Rt Q • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=9 ACcywo 29 80 • Sanders: http: //www. triplepnederland. nl/files/9613/3458/1155/Achtergrond _Triple. P_Sanders_2012. pdf

The High/Scope Perry Preschool Project • Began 1962, 123 high-risk, low SES, low IQ scores, 3 -4 y. o. African-American children; 58 in program group; 65 in control • http: //www. highscope. org/content. asp? conte ntid=219 • http: //www. highscope. org/file/Research/Perr y. Project/specialsummary_rev 2011_02_2. pdf • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=dn. GEu. Hf. C 8 w

Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBS) mentoring program • Social support from a caring adult to a high-risk child or adolescent can promote a healthy development in spite of environmental factors. • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=tvblk 8 q. Zi 4 E • https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v=DFsur 7 ZR 2 ZA • Tierney et al. (1995): http: //www. promisingpractices. net/program. as p? programid=125

Gender Roles Evolutionary theory (men aggressive; women nurturing) Psychosexual differentiation theory (male androgens) Biosocial theory (intersex) Social learning theory-modeling Gender schema theory-beliefs, thinking, labels, conformity Sociocultural theory or social role theory Best explanation?

Research • Research whether gender roles are nature, nurture, continuously, discontinuously, biologically, socially, environmentally, or cognitively informed. • some helpful terms: evolutionary theory, psychosexual differentiation theory, biosocial theory, Money and Ehrhardt, social learning theory, gender schema theory, Martin and Halverson, Matsumoto, Eagly, Mead, Goffman, Reinicke, Engle and Breaux

Gender Roles Studies Wolf et al. (2002) Smith and Lloyd (1978) Baby X experiment Whiting and Edwards (1973) Sroufe et al. (1993) peer socialization Bower (1989) one year old playing Bem (1981) Martin and Halverson (1978) gender identity construction Martin and Halverson (1983) male and female activities Fagot and Hagan (1991) mother and father interactions Fagot (1985) gender policing Reinicke (2006) Denmark fathers Engle and Breaux (1994) fathers and parenting Best et al. (1977) gender stereotypes in UK, Ireland US participants, method, conclusions, criticism? nature, nurture, biological, social, cognitive? matches with which theory?

Wolf et al. (2002)—this one! • • Wolf et al. (2002) Participants: Female rats Method: Studied effects of testosterone administration during sexual differentiation to understand the effects of environmental androgens on fetuses; injected testosterone into a pregnant rat to see if it would masculanize the females, or alter the male fetuses. Conclusions: Reduced number of nipples – they were virtually eliminated, presence of prostate tissue, Uterus filled with fluid after puberty; . 5 and 1 mg of testosterone masculinizes female offspring without great affecting the pup’s life or pregnancy of the female; reduced litter size Criticism: undue harm to the animal, could potentially harm their pups Nature or Nurture? Nature Biological, Social, or Cognitive? Biological Matches with theory? Psychosexual theory by Katrina Kavehkar, EA Land, Jackie Mosier

Wolf et al. (2002) • • Participants - Sprague–Dawley rats Method - At weaning, males were either placed in cages with other rats or by themselves to monitor changes in body weight and food intake. Adult male rats that were housed with other rats at 65– 70 days of age were fasted overnight, anesthetized with CO 2, weighed, and decapitated. In order to analyze the amounts insulin used for signaling, about half the rats in all experimental groups were injected with regular human insulin in 100 ml of 0. 9% sodium chloride, and half were injected with 100 ml of 0. 9% sodium chloride, 10 min before being decapitated. Liver, fat depots, and soleus muscles were excised, weighed, frozen, and stored for further analyses. Tissues from both saline and insulin-treated rats were used for analyses of body composition and hepatic TG content, since the acute administration of insulin would not alter these end points. Conclusions - Prenatal androgen excess causes male rat offspring to have increased body fat mass and fasting glucose levels in early adulthood, although there were no changes in total body weight. Criticism - not ecologically valid, animal ethics, and possible conformation bias. by Hannah Jurgens and Rachel Knox

Smith and Lloyd (1978) Baby X • • • Smith and Lloyd (1978) Participants: Mothers of first-born infants, aged 5 -10 months Method: Asked adults to interact with children in unisex snowsuits, either blue or pink; Snowsuits were randomly distributed and not always in line with the infants’ true sex; the adults played with the infants according tow hat they believed was the gender of the child based on the color of the snowsuit Conclusions: A baby’s perceived gender is part of the baby’s social environment because people treat the child according to the perception of gender This could influence the child’s own perception of gender and become a determining factor in the development of the child’s gender role Criticism: No informed consent on the part of the baby (But you can’t really have informed consent from a baby) Nature or Nurture? Nurture Biological, Social, Or Cognitive? Social Matches which theory? Social learning Theory by Katrina Kavehkar, EA Land, Jackie Mosier

Smith and Lloyd (1978) Baby X Participants: mothers of first born infants and actor babies aged 5 -10 months that exhibited no fear of strangers • Method: invited mother to come and play with a randomly selected baby, dressed either in a pink or a blue unisex snowsuit. in each group (pink or blue), 50% were girls and 50% were boys. In each room, the adult was presented with "boy" toys (plastic hammer and a rabbit with overalls and a bowtie), "girl" toys (a doll and a plastic bambi), and "neutral" toys (a ball and rattle). The mothers then picked the toys that they thought the baby would like to play with. • Conclusions: The mothers found to pick up and show the infants gender stereotyped toys that encouraged the babies they thought were boys to engage in large bodily movements. Babies wearing pink snowsuits were treated as girls and shown feminine toys while babies wearing blue snowsuits were treated as boys and shown masculine toys, regardless of the actual sex. These findings suggest that parental responses to an infant's perceived sex were to some extent gender stereotyped. • Criticism: Deceptive (snowsuits mask distinctive male or female features), high demand characteristics with the color of the snowsuits (enforcing stereotypes), lacks cross cultural validity because many cultures do not identify genders with either blue or pink • This presents a more nurture view on development • Social Learning Theory! : ) By Beatriz and Jennifer •

Smith and Lloyd (1978) Baby X • Smith and Lloyed (1978) Baby X experiment • Participants – Adults • Method – Adults were asked to interact with infants dressed in unisex snowsuits or either blue or pink. The snowsuits were randomly distributed and not always in line with the infants’ true sex. The adults played with the infants according to what they believed were the gender of the child (color of snowsuit). • Conclusions – This indicates that a baby’s perceived gender is part of the baby’s social environment because people treat the child according to perceptions of gender. This could influence the child’s own perception of gender and become a determining factor in the development of the child’s gender role identity. • Criticism – The examples that the participants were made to observe were infants, which is the stage where sexually their biological factors are still growing and not completely confirmed. Since gender is developmental it is no accurate to experiment with those who are just borned. • Nature vs. Nurture – Nurture • Biological vs. Social vs. Cognitive – Social • Matching theory - Sroufe et al. (1993) observed children around the ages of 10 and 11 and found that those who did not behave in a gender-stereotyped ways were the least popular. These studies indicate that children establish a kind of social control in relation to gender roles very early and it may well be that peer socialization is an important factor in gender role development. by Zion No

Whiting and Edwards (1973) • Whiting and Edwards – Six Cultures Study • • 6 months 50 -100 families (in each culture? ? ) • • cross cultural study over 6 cultures • • systematic observation (elimates/reduces bias. Make set of rules and describe them before finding data) • • found that 3 -6 year old girls sought help more frequently than boys did • • girls sought or offered physical contact more frequently and slightly more sociable than boys • • boys engaged in more rough-and-tumble play than girls • • gender differences become more pronounced during middle childhood, when often quite sharp separation of the social contexts for boys and girls develops • • girls work harder than boys and often begin to work at an earlier age • • Kenya boys helped take care of children – child nurturing • - Nurture • - Deterministic (suggests that solely culture affects the gender roles) • - Sociocultural theory • + systematic observation reduced bias by Diana Vo and Ariana Reyna + cross cultural + valid

Whiting and Edwards (1973) • • • a cross-cultural analysis of sex differences in the behavior of children aged 3 -11 study suggested that there are universal sex differences in the behavior of children 3 to 11 years old, but the differences are not consistent nor as great as the studies of american and western european children would suggest socialization pressure in the form of task assignment and the associated frequency of interaction with different categories of individuals (infants, adults, and peers) may well explain many of these differences aggression, perhaps especially rough and tumble play, and touching behavior seem the best candidates for biophysical genesis all of the behaviors that are characteristic of males and females seem remarkably malleable under the impact of socialization pressures, which seem to be remarkably consistent from one society to another the difference in many of the types of behavior seemsto be one of style rather than intent: i. e. , seeking help (“feminine”) rather than attention (“masculine”), and justifying dominance by appealing to rules (“feminine”) rather than straight egoistic dominance (“masculine”) studied in 6 different cultures: Kenya, Okinawa, India, Philippines, Mexico, and New Englandan equal ratio of boys to girls in each society (groups were in average of 10 people)children were observed in natural settings, most frequently in their house or yard; on an average of 17 different times for 5 minute periods over a period of 6 to 14 months by Gabbie and Madison

Sroufe et al. (1993) peer socialization Observed children around the ages of 10 and 11 and found that those who did not behave in a gender-stereotyped ways were the least popular. These studies indicate that children establish a kind of social control in relation to gender roles very early and it may well be that peer socialization is an important factor in gender role development. • Subjects were selected in the mother child project at the University of Minnesota. It was a 15 year longitudinal study and naturalistic observation with children at risk for developmental problems because they were born into poverty. • At the time of the delivery, the mothers ranged from 12 -37 years old. 62% were single and 40% had not completed high school. 80% were caucasian, 14% were black, and the remaining 6% were Native American or Hispanic. The working job status of the parents were: 20% had professional, technical, or managerial. 62% were in clerical, craftsperson, service or labor jobs. 16% were unemployed and 2% were students. • The children had an assessment at 10 -11 years. 48 children were selected from the larger sample for participation of 3, 4 week long summer camps. They were held on the University campus. 16 children participated each year. They had 48 were broken up into 3 groups of 16 and traded off each year of going to the camp. They were selected on the basis of various criteria: attachment classification, gender, race, and age (average was 10 years and 11 months). • At the camp- 5 days a week, 4 1/2 hours each day for 4 weeks. They did normal camp activities and were naturally observed. Most of the activities involved all kids, some allowed them to choose their own groups. They were recorded, and video taped throughout the camp. • All camp children had previously been grouped into secure and anxious attachment categories. Those with secure histories most likely maintained and less likely violated gender boundaries. Boys showed more boundary violation and maintenance than girls. The actions that the children had to do to violate the gender boundaries were: Hovering- (had to stay near a group of the opposite gender for a certain amount of time), Joining- becoming a part of the opposite gender group, Heterosexual Meaning- physical contact, gestures, flirting (two members of the other gender). On a 7 point scale, the highest score (on maintenance) being that the child must engage in behaviors that actively define the gender boundary. The highest score on violation is if they frequently violate boundaries and express intimacy with the other gender. They took an exit interview at the end of the camp which asked them what they thought of each child. • Nurture- they were brought up in poverty (thought that would increase a risk for developmental problems). Social- their interactions were observed with other kids in the camp. • Social Learning theory by Kassy and Sofia •

Sroufe et al. (1993) peer socialization • Method: observed children in natural setting • Participants: children ages 10 -11 • Findings: those who did not behave in a gender-stereotyped way were the least popular. Indicating that children establish a kind of social control in relation to gender roles very early and it may well be that peer socialization is an important factor in gender role development • Criticism: doesn't explain the variation in how children conform to gender role stereotypes and tries to operationalize gender • Nurture • Socio-cultural • Matches with Biosocial theory by Haley and Olivia

Bower (1989) one year old playing • --TGR Bower -- when 1 -yr-old infants are dressed identically, adults usually cannot tell male and female infants apart -found that other 1 -yr-olds could detect the difference -when 1 -yr-old toddlers played with unfamiliar peers dressed in unisex clothes, the toddlers played more with others of the same sex -- when watching videotapes of other toddlers, 1 -yr-old girls stared more intently at films of other girls and 1 -yr-old boys looked more intently at films of other boys, no matter how the babies in the tapes were dressed -- one year olds are unlikely to understand the concepts of "male" and "female" , however toddlers are already sensitive to subtle gender differences in behaviour and mannerisms. Clearly then, gender awareness emerges at a young age by Neetika and Sarah

Bem (1981) Bem 1981 Gender schema theory was first introduced by Sandra Bem in 1981 as a cognitive theory to explain how individuals become gendered in society, and how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. • How it works: Gender-associated information is predominantly transmuted through society by way of schemata, or networks of information that allow for some information to be more easily assimilated than others. Bem argues that there are individual differences in the degree to which people hold these gender schemata. These differences are manifested via the degree to which individuals are sex-typed. • Core gender identity is tied up in the sex typing that an individual undergoes. This typing can be heavily influenced by child rearing, media, school, and other forms of cultural transmission. • There are four categories in which an individual may fall: sex-typed, cross-sex-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated. • Sex-typed individuals process and integrate information that is in line with their gender. • Cross-sex-typed individuals process and integrate information that is in line with the opposite gender. • Androgynous individuals process and integrate traits and information from both genders. • Undifferentiated individuals do not show efficient processing of sex-typed information. • Bem Sex Role Inventory Experiment • Participants: 48 males and 48 females • Method: 2 groups- sex typed and non-sex typed, viewed 61 randomly ordered words at 3 second intervals, some words were feminine and some were masculine, participants then wrote down as many as they could recall. • Findings: Participants could recall an equal amount of words, but the order in which they recalled the words differed according to who was defined as sex typed or non-sex typed. For example, a sex typed participant would recall a feminine word then recall a cluster of feminine words. Non-sex typed participants used different grouping. • Conclusion: The findings supported the notion that sex-typed people are more likely to create categories based around gender. • Bem believe that as children learn the contents of their society’s gender schema, they learn which attribute are to be linked with their own sex and with themselves • Pros: Ecological Validity and Generalizability (explains stereotyping and why it persists in society) • Con: Reductionist (separates males and females into two distinct and separate groups) • Unethical (encourages stereotyping and suggests that males have a greater status in society than women) • This was a cognitive, nurture, and social experiment and theory. by Cameron and Mina • •

Marvin and Halverson (1978) gender identity construction • Most aligns with the Gender Schema Theory. • They created a theory that children actively construct gender identity based on their own experiences and categorize according to gender. This leads them to seeing boys and girls differently: they have a gender schema for their own sex (ingroup) and the other sex (outgroup) that determines what children pay attention to, whom they interact with, and what they remember. The gender identity schemas serve as an internal, self-regulating standard; may become a selffulfilling prophecy or a stereotype threat. • Nurture is the strong component of this theory. Pro: accurate representation of how children develop. Free will for parents, how we raise the children determines which gender they are • Con: reductionist, reduces how we determine our gender to only the schemas we develop and attribute ourselves to. • Was only a theory, has no experimentation or data to support claim. • Determinism for children, they are going to determine their identity based on how their parents raise them. by Casey and David •

Martin and Halverson (1983) male and female activities • Took 5 and 6 year olds and showed them pictures of children performing gender-consistent activities (boy playing with a truck) and gender-inconsistent activities (girl sawing wood). A week later the children were asked to recall what gender performed which activity. They easily recalled the sex of those performing gender-consistent activities, however, children often distorted the scene when it came to gender-inconsistent activities, and recalled them as being gender-consistent (recalled it as a boy sawing wood rather than a girl). This study reflects the gender-schema theory. Mainly cognitive which is influenced by schemas, which makes it nurture because of social stereotypes. by Kara and Jennifer

Martin and Halverson (1983) male and female activities • Investigate whether existing sex-typing schemas distort memories of experiences that are inconsistent with existing schemas • • PARTICIPANTS: 48 children aged 5 -6 (24 boys, 24 girls) METHOD: experiment - 16 pictures were shown and the children were asked to identify the sex and age of the person in the picture. They were also asked to rate how similar they were to the person. In half the pictures, the person was doing an activity that matched with a traditional gender stereotype, and in the other half the person was doing an activity that was inconsistent with a traditional gender stereotype. For example, one of the pictures was a girl who is in the kitchen cooking with her mom, which is consistent with traditional stereotypes. An example of a picture that is inconsistent with traditional gender stereotypes, is a picture of a girl in the garden with her dad chopping wood. FINDINGS: both boys and girls were more likely to remember incorrectly the sex of an actor doing something inconsistent with a gender stereotype, although overall very few errors were made. However, out of the errors made, 84% were on a picture with inconsistent stereotyping. STRENGTHS: replicable, empirical data, low risk/benefit ratio, reliable WEAKNESSES: population variation (not socioculturally generalizable), young participants therefore they cannot communicate well, ecological validity • • *nurture, cognitive* • Gender Schema Theory By Katie, Kaela, and George

Fagot and Hagan (1991) • • Purpose- Test whether early childhood gender socialization is related to adulthood academic, career, and family expectations. Participants- 277 University students volunteered to complete surveys. Method- The surveys measured the frequency of play with feminine and masculine toys and games, and neutral toys with each parent. Looked at majors, future occupations, parental, and marital role expectations, and compared these to the answers in the surveys. They operationalized the answers by using a "Life Role Salience Scale" and an "Attitudes Towards Women Scale", and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Results- Exposure to sex-typed toys in early childhood was related to expected commitment levels to future occupational, parental, and marital roles, as well as to female dominating university majors. They toys had more influence with the males' result than those from the females. Nurture enforcing, social influence, concurs with gender-stereotyping theory. Criticisms- Self selected sample, possible skewed answers due to poor memory, social desirability bias, confounding variables. by Kiley and Annie

Fagot and Hagan (1991) mother and father interactions Population: Families of 92 12 -month-old children, 82 18 -month-old children, and 172 5 -year-old children Method: Home observations of parents with young children Conclusions Mothers gave more instructions and directions than did fathers, while fathers spent more time in positive play interaction. • Boys received more negative comment for communication attempts than did girls • Fathers gave fewer positive reactions to boys engaging in female-typical toy play • Mothers gave more instruction to girls when they attempted to communicate • The second year of life is the time when children are learning many new skills and when parents are still experimenting with parenting styles and may well use stereotypical responses when unsure of themselves. • 18 months is when parents use most rewards and punishments • Parents displayed fewer reactions to the appropriateness of sex-typed play for their 5 year old children, compared to their 18 month old children • 12 month old boys receive more positive reactions to masculine play, and negative assertive behaviors, while mothers give more positive reactions to 12 month old girls who played with feminine toys than did fathers • Toys are used as tools of gender socialization by parents • Parents will react after the toy has been selected, reference to which toys are appropriate • Criticisms • Not consistent with population sizes • Only correlational, not causation • Enforcing gender stereotypes- ethically questionable • Nurture, social, and gender schema theory based study. By Toni Knox and Megan Shepherd • •

Fagot (1985) gender policing • population 40 21 -25 month olds, Observational Study • Teachers, peers, observed the children playing , asked to respond to behavior that is classified as male/female/neutral. • • Teachers, regardless of the gender of either teacher or student, responded well to female and neutral behaviors, and negatively to male behavior. Girls responded better to other girls than boys, regardless of the behavior exhibited. • Boys responded best to "male-behaving" boys and less preferably to other categories • Both girls and teachers were effective in changing the behavior of girls in the groups, but couldn't change the behavior of boys • Boys were effective in moderating the behavior of other boys, but couldn't change the behavior of girls. • Gender reinforcements are effective, but other factors weigh heavily in determining gender be • Suggests a socio-cultural, nurturing framework to identify gender behavior, with norms already taught by 2 years of age and being effective. • Matches best with the social learning theory Small population, preferably a larger range of ages to see the engraining of gender norms throughout life, maybe some longitudinal action. By Noah and Sara •

Fagot (1985) gender policing • -Children between 21 and 25 (12 -25) (25 -28) months old • -Observational • -Found: boys made fun of other boys who played with dolls or girls, and girls didn’t like when other girls played with boys, girls are not as concerned with other girls’ sex-typed behaviors • -shows that gender schemas have been established and that peers can reinforce gender schemas which could then act as an internal selfregulating standard • -Nurture • -Social Learning • Strength: avoids artificiality • Weakness: language By Sydney and Daniel

Reinicke (2006) Denmark fathers • • Participants: 15 Danish men & 8 of their employers • • Method: Interviews • • Conclusions: Men’s ideas about fatherhood revolve around close contact and involvement with children. Men value childcare and see the importance in it. They understand that a father’s role is important in a child’s identity. They want to be close to their children. Men do not acknowledge fully the significance of gender for their decisions concerning the child, parental leave and domestic affairs. • Issue of parental leave can cause problems between employees and employers. However, generally not problematic • • Criticism: • o Cons: Small population, not cross-cultural, qualitative data, social desirability, expectancy effect • o Pros: Generalizable, data-rich (interview) • • Nature/ Social/Sociocultural? • http: //rucforsk. ruc. dk/site/en/publications/fathers-on-parental-leave-in-denmark(798290 f 0 -b 2 bb-11 db-974 c 000 ea 68 e 967 b). html By Michelle and Travis

Reinicke (2006) Denmark fathers Two books by Kenneth Reinicke of the Danish Research Center for Gender Equality entitled Den hele mand - manderollen i forandring [The whole man: masculinity in transition] (Reinicke 2002) and Mænd i lyst og nød [Men in good times and bad] (Reinicke 2004) can be considered key works. The first book is a deliberately broad contribution to the societal debate on equality aimed at bringing a critical view of men and masculinity into the political discourse. Reinicke argues for a gendered examination of the “male role” in terms of intimate relationships, gender equality, careers, fatherhood, and what he refers to as the more taboo subjects: violence, rape, and men and sexuality. Reinicke notes that discussions in Denmark about the “male role” can be found in popular texts without any connection to academic research. Moreover, he calls particular attention to the fact that while the discourse on violence refers to criminals, gang members, drug addicts and second generation immigrants, men are rarely visible. While Reinicke (Reinicke 2002. p. 13) aims to strike a balance between the “positive sides of men and men’s culture” and “the more obscure aspects of men’s lives, ” he states that these “darker sides of men’s thoughts and actions” are most in need of attention. In the second book, Reinicke continues his exploration of the “dark and destructive” aspects of men’s lives. The now self-described pro-feminist Reinicke revisits the “taboo subjects” surrounding men and masculinity in a patriarchal society such as men’s use of prostitution, men’s violence against women and rape. Other topics include men’s health, sexuality, fatherhood, and the gendered labor market. In more pointed discussions of men’s violences, in a country that claims a high level of gender equality, Reinicke calls attention to men’s privileged status, gendered power relations and the oppression of women. He is critical of the Danish functionalist view of prostitution, speaks out against a legal system stacked against women in cases of rape, and warns against reducing men’s violence toward their female partners to psychological explanations and men’s loss of control. Reinicke believes Denmark needs new ways of discussing these issues, ways that directly address men’s sense of entitlement as well as men’s sexuality. He also advocates serious consideration of policy changes such as criminalizing clients of women involved in prostitution, legal reform in cases of unintentional rape which all too often result in acquittal, more treatment of violent men who can now legally be removed from the home, and violence prevention efforts starting early in schools. The connection between violences and “traditional attitudes of masculinity” must be confronted; men are socialized to do violence (Reinicke 2004, p. 106). Any initiatives must be followed up by serious work to change attitudes. • Summary-- Reinicke believes that men suffer from a mix of innate “dark and destructive” characteristics as well as societally reinforced abusive behavior. （“men are socialized to do violence”). By John and Alex •

Engle and Breaux (1994) fathers and parenting • Engle and Breaux 1994 -- fathers and parenting • if fathers participated in programs on parenting and child development = more Involved with children By Sofie and Claire

Engle and Breaux (1994) fathers and parenting Analysis of which countries had the most female headed households (no father). The number of children being reared without the support of their fathers income is increasing. These changing gender roles leave both men and women confused. Hunter/gatherer (modern day where father is making the $$) societies result in the highest level of father infant contact and marital cooperation. Absent fathers express more concern and interest in their children the women would expect. Greater contact with children has shown positive effects on fathers. • A father is more likely to be involved if: • 1) he lives in the culture where gender equality and fathering is supported. • 2) is a coresident with wife and child. • 3) has a harmonious relationship with mother. • 4) part of an economic system with enough resources to support children. • 5) works in a cooperative way with wife to provide sustenance for family. • Participants: the worldmethod: meta-analysis study • criticism: no manipulation, not experimental, • nurture • social By Drew and Cecily •

Best et al. (1977) gender stereotypes in UK, Ireland US • -Cross cultural study using children from the UK, Ireland US. -Separated children into two ages groups (ages 5 and 8) • -Found that children in both age groups agreed on gender stereotypes, however more stereotypes were present in the 8 year old group. • -Female stereotype was soft-hearted. • -Male stereotypes including strong, aggressive, cruel, and coarse. • Pro: Cross culturally valid. • Con: Small age group range, enforces stereotypes • Theory match: Gender schema theory and sociocultural By Sam and Evan

Best et al. (1977) gender stereotypes in UK, Ireland US Participants- Children from UK, Ireland, the U. S Methodology- Cross-cultural survey from schoolchildren from all three countries • Conclusions- Gender Stereotypes (male and female) are adopted by an individual at an early age • -Majority of boys and girls both identified with females; females were more gentle, calm and soft-hearted while boys were aggressive and cruel • - 8 -year old group had more stereotypes than the 5 -year old, and these stereotypes were more similar to those possessed by adults • Criticisms- Reductionist, not cross-cultural enough because it only includes modern English countries, • Nurture Theory- Matches with gender schema because they are exposed to an environment which is a cognitive influence By Luke and Paul •

Adolescence PHYSICAL CHANGE AND IDENTITY • Schlegel and Berry (1991) • Hall (1904) • Simmons and Blyth (1987)-cultural ideal hypothesis • Caufmann and Steinberg (1996) • Fredrickson and Roberts (1997)-objectification theory • Stice and Withenton (2002) • Ferron (1997) US and French

Schlegel and Berry (1991) Participants: 173 pre-industrial societies Method: -reviewing existing cross-cultural ethnographic works that discuss adolescence and coding for a select number of variables. • -statistical analysis and ethnographic accounts of 173 pre-industrial societies • -point out the ways in which adolescence differs for boys and girls within a culture, and the variable degrees of discord in the adolescent period that can exist between them • Conclusions: - Biological and psychological changes that accompany adolescence are shaped by culture • - In most parts of the world, adolescent boys and girls think about sex, talk about sex, and often have sex, but societies cope with this amped up sexuality in different ways • - points to both regularities and differences in adolescence across cultures. • Criticism: - too deterministic • - focuses too much on nurture • + large population • + cross cultural • Nature vs. Nurture: Nurture • Biological, Social, or Cognitive: Social By Caroline and Jackie • •

Schlegel and Berry (1991) • • • Participants 186 non-western societies, both traditional and pre-industrial Methods Ethnographic accounts Conclusions They found that the biological and psychological changes that accompany adolescence are shaped by culture to a surprising degree - sex, marriage, etc. It was also noted that a common feature of adolescence is that young people contribute to family life and the wider community by helping out with chores, cleaning streets, preparing for community festivals and the like. Criticism Pro - Ecologically and cross culturally valid - they found data that matched across multiple cultures and was done in a way that did not belittle validity. Participant population - large population of 186 societies allows for one to generalize and represent a larger range of people. Con - Social desirability - the societies are wanting to fit a desired norm and may have answered without as much honesty as wanted. Population - only included traditional and pre-industrial societies Nurture and Social http: //www. psychologytoday. com/blog/culture-conscious/201202/getting-grown • http: //www. sjsu. edu/faculty/laptekar/download/World. Psych. pdf • • http: //science. jrank. org/pages/9980/Life-Cycle-Adolescence-Contemporary-Perspectives. html By Casey and David • •

Hall (1904) • Storm and Stress- 1. Conflict with parents- when adolescence have a tendency to be rebellious and resist adult authority 2. Mood distributions- adolescence tend to be more volatile than either children or adults 3. Risk behavior- adolescence have a higher rate of recklessness, norm breaking, and anti-social behavior • Adolescence is a natural, universal, and necessary phase in biological recapitulation, and thus, the individual's psychological development. • Argues for multiple curricula because different adolescents were headed for "different destinations". • He believed that "to force [all students] into one mode would be wasteful, undemocratic, and immoral. • Hall was largely concerned with the conceptual description of phenomena and he seldom offered casual explanations. • Between 1894 and 1903, Hall et al developed and administered over 100 different questionnaires. • Generalization, not cross-culturally valid, theory not experiment, no population group. • By Elizabeth Anne Land, Kassy Martinez, and Sofia Yazpik

Hall (1904) • ZION NO AND ROSS DOUGAL • Hall (1904) • Participants – adolescents aged 14 -24 • Method – It’s a theory, therefore no method • Conclusion - Hall viewed conflicts during adolescence as due not only to human evolutionary history but also to the incompatibility between adolescents’ need for independence and the fact that parents, teachers and other authority figures still think of adolescents as mere children, and tighten the rein where they should loosen it. • Nature – He thinks that this is a process that everyone goes through • Biological/cognitive- the term “storm and stress” is said to be universal and inevitable.

Simmons and Blyth (1987)-cultural ideal hypothesis Simmons and Blyth (1987) – Cultural Ideal Hypothesis Compared students who made the transition into junior high school at 7 th grade with others who remained in elementary school through 8 th grade • Found that students undergoing 2 changes (at 7 th and 10 th grades) did not fare as well as those making a single transition between 8 th and 9 th grade. • 2 changes = pubertal change and school change • Suggests that two moves are worse than one • Self-esteem of girls is a disabling effect from the transition • Marked decline in some young adolescents’ school grades as they moved into junior high school • Drops of self esteem as adolescents make the junior and senior high school transitions • Large heterogeneous urban sample • Body image is the main focus on the early onset of puberty • Particularly European American girls • Early developers are usually less satisfied with their body and are more likely to care about how they look at an early age • Main reason for their dissatisfaction is the fact that they weigh more than others • When puberty becomes constant, early developers still remain concerned about their body image due to the change in the way they think. • Early developers have learned to be insecure about themselves and although others have caught up with them physically, it’s hard to change a trained mind. • Body image is main focus on the early onset of puberty • Early developers are happier and even after height and weight is controlled, they seem to be happier • In grade 7, earlier developers considered themselves to be better looking • In grade 10, they considered themselves to be better in athletics • Concluded that early developing males have undoubtedly and head start in athletics • Female • Male By Diana and Ariana • •

Simmons and Blyth (1987)-cultural ideal hypothesis Participants: Theory Based Method: Theory based -Possibly a survey Conclusions: -Body image is the main focus on the early onset of puberty. -Early developers=Less satisfied with their body and are more likely to care about how they look at an early age. • -Main reason for their dissatisfaction is the fact that they weigh more than others. • -The cultural ideal hypothesis: Suggests that puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body type, while girls move further away from theirs, this is because in cultural ideals, the male body should be big and strong, while the female body should be slim. • Criticism: +Ties the objectification that the media portrays to the development of teenagers. • -Deterministic, If survey (communication barrier between scientist and teen) • Nurture: Develops through the culture of a society. • Social Study By Paul and Carlos • • •

Caufmann and Steinberg (1996) • Sample: Self-report questionnaires administered to eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade students as well as college students attending schools in the Philadelphia area to gain a pretty representative sample for the study. Participants: The junior high and high-school students were both located in the same district and were selected to yield a diverse sample of in terms of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and type of community that was demographically comparable to the student body of college from which the adult sample was derived-- used the same factors as a control for bias Method: A ``passive consent'' procedure was used to obtain approval from the parents of eighth, tenth, and twelfth grade students, whereby parents were provided an opportunity to withhold consent for their children's participation. • • • All parents with children in the participating school grades were informed, by class mail, of the date and nature of the study three weeks in advance of the scheduled questionnaire administration. Parents were asked to call or write their child's school or the investigator of the study if they did not want their child to participate in the study. They also obtained active consent from all participating adolescents. Students in attendance in participating schools on the days of survey administration were informed about the purpose of the study, and asked to complete the questionnaire. All students were informed that their participation was voluntary and retractable. Conclusions and Criticisms: -3 main factors that affect adolescent decisions- temperance, perspective, and responsibility - these factors are considered innate characteristics that affect judgement in people -age 16 -19 appears to be an important transition point into adulthood -decision making is more constant in mature and intermediate participants while immature participants have unstable decision making abilities Limitations: -significant number of participants over 21 and not as many adolescents Strengths: -diverse population with economic and ethnic diversity http: //www. oja. state. ok. us/SAG%20 Website/Mac. Found/%28 Im%29 maturity_of_Judgment_Article. pdf By Neetika and Sarah

Caufmann and Steinberg (1996) • • • Participants- 8 th, 10 th, 12 th grade, and college students in the Philadelphia area- 417 8 th grade students, 238 10 th grade students, 155 12 th grade students, 115 under 21, and 90 21 and over Methodology- "Passive consent" acquired by contacting the parents of the included children and questioning them whether or not their children would participate. Students given the questionnaire the day of the experiment and told they could withhold answers if so desired. Participants asked to provide their age, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status based on parents' level of education. The answers on the survey were taken and analyzed in order to arrive at the listed conclusions. Conclusions- The study concluded that based on all evidence, the decision-making capabilities of the adolescent groups were far more "antisocial" (poor decision-making in regards to issues such as drinking and theft) than their older counterparts, and such tendencies curbed with age. Boys showed more tendency than girls to engage in this behavior, and girls tended to show reduce antisocial behavior earlier. Criticism- Reductionist and vague to label all negative behavior "antisocial" (what is antisocial behavior? Why is it such? ). In addition, sample questions from the survey were not provided so adds doubt to the conclusions. Also, potential ethical concens with consent because only parents were notified, not the students actually participating in the study. cognitive and psychosocial. Studies 3 factors of maturity: responsibility, temperance, and perspective. Nature and nurture Responsibility: tested using Psychosocial Maturity Inventory (PSMI) with four point sub-scales for self-reliance, identity, and work orientation perspective: the ability to see short and long term consequences was measured using the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (5 point scale). The Consideration of Others sub-scale (5 point) measured how often participants take other people's perspectives into account. temperance: impulse control and self-restraint from aggressive behavior on 5 point sub-scales http: //psycnet. apa. org/journals/lhb/20/3/249/ http: //www. oja. state. ok. us/SAG%20 Website/Mac. Found/(Im)maturity_of_Judgment_Article. pdf http: //www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC 2396566/ By Luke and Olivia

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997)objectification theory • This theory is focused on nurture and cognitive aspects. Objectification Theory is a hypothesis regarding the propagation of sexual objectification proposed by Barbara L. Fredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberts (1997). http: //www. objectificationtheory. com/ Objectification theory posits that girls and women are typically acculturated to internalize an observer's perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This perspective on self can lead to habitual body monitoring, which, in turn, can increase women's opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experiences may help account for an array of mental health risks that disproportionately affect women: unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and eating disorders. Objectification theory also illuminates why changes in these mental health risks appear to occur in step with life-course changes in the female body. http: //onlinelibrary. wiley. com/doi/10. 1111/j. 1471 -6402. 1997. tb 00108. x/abstract Self objectification Self-objectification allows individuals to acclimate to a society where the objectification of female bodies is prevalent[1]. Self objectification can increase in elicit situations which heightens the awareness of an individual’s physical appearance[4]. Here, the presence of a third person observer is enhanced. Therefore, when individuals know others are looking at them, or will be looking at them, they are more likely to care about their physical appearance. Examples of enhanced presence of an observer include the presence of an audience, camera, or other known observer. Women, girls, and self-objectification Primarily, objectification theory describes how women and girls are influenced as a result of expected social and gender roles[1]. Research indicates not all women are influenced equally, due to the anatomical, hormonal, and genetic differences of the female body; however, women’s bodies are often objectified and evaluated more frequently. [5] Females learn that their physical appearance is important to themselves and society. As a result, females consider their physical appearance often, expecting that others will also. Sexual objectification occurs when a person is identified by their sexual body parts or sexual function. In essence, an individual loses their identity, and is recognized solely by the physical characteristics of their body[1]. The purpose of this recognition is to bring enjoyment to others, or to serve as a sexual object for society[6]. Sexual objectification can occur as a social construct among individuals, or as a result of exposure to the mass media. [citation needed] Psychological consequences Research indicates that objectification theory is valuable to understanding how repeated visual images in the media are socialized and translated into mental health problems, including psychological consequences on the individual and societal level[7]. These include increased self consciousness, increased body anxiety, heightened mental health threats (depression, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and sexual dysfunction), and increased body shame. Therefore, theory has been used to explore an array of dependent variables including disordered eating, mental health, depression, motor performance, body image, idealized body type, stereotype formation, sexual perception and sexual typing. [4][7] Effects of objectification theory are identified on both the individual and societal levels. • http: //dictionary. sensagent. com/objectification%20 theory/en-en/ By Kara and Jennifer

Fredrickson and Roberts (1997)objectification theory

Stice and Withenton (2002) • Stice and Whitenton identified, in 2002, using a longitudinal study of 496 teenage girls, risk factors for body dissatisfaction, which increases the risk of eating disorders, depression, exercise dependence, and steroid use. This was the first study of its kind in the nation, and they found that there are two pathways (pressure to be thin from your surroundings or adiposity from an early age) to body dissatisfaction. • Socio-cultural understanding: One of the two argued pathways to body dissatisfaction is sociocultural pressure to be thin and be attractive. This argues that socio-cultural factors can have an established effect on body dissatisfaction. • Biological understanding: Elevated adiposity, and a risk for depression occupy the second pathway to body dissatisfaction, arguing that developmental factors will increase the risk of body dissatisfaction. • "Elevated adiposity, deficits perceived pressure to be thin, thin-ideal internalization, and social support deficits predicted increases in body dissatisfaction, but early menarche, weight-related teasing, and depression did not" • • • strengths: large population, longitudinal weaknesses: only teenage girls, correlational By Sara Podwall and Noah Truesdale

Stice and Withenton (2002) found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor of depression, eating disorders, exercise dependence, and steroid use among young people in the USA. • Participants were 496 adolescent girls from four public and four private middle schools in a metropolitan area of the southwestern United States. • Adolescents ranged from 11 to 15 years of age • The study was described to parents and participants as an investigation of adolescent mental and physical health • Adolescents completed a questionnaire, participated in a psychiatric interview, and had their weight and height measured by female research assistants at baseline and again 1 year later It concluded that: • Socio-cultural pressure, individual differences in body mass, and deficits in social support contribute to body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls • Early menarche, weight-related teasing, and depression did not PDF: http: //www. ori. org/files/Static%20 Page%20 Files/Stice. Whitenton 02. pdf By Camila •

Ferron (1997) US and French • Purpose: Identify emotional components of body image in adolescents and determine whether body changes were dependent on the context of the environment • Population: 80 French (40 male 40 female) and 60 American (30/30) high schoolers • Method: Narrative, individual interviews that were thematically analyzed for perceptions, attitudes, and belief about body image • • + Cross-cultural, large sample population for an interview study, even number of boys and girls - Ethnocentric towards Western cultures, many extraneous variables involved, all of the American students were from the same socioeconomic background (middle class in Chicago; also a pro) • Results: Both French and American adolescents sought to attain an ideal body. However, Americans were more likely to believe that they could actually fully realize that body, and that their selfconcept was controlled by themselves. The French participants were more likely to believe the ideal body was not attainable and that their idea of a perfect body was formed by society. By Kiley and Travis •

Ferron (1997) US and French • • • Method: Small scale survey using semi-structured interviews to collect data in a cross-cultural sample Interview guide in order to determine their perception, attitude, and beliefs about body image Thematic analysis of content of interviews to reveal differences in two countries Participant Population 13 -17 year old who were healthy, middle or upper-middle class Randomly chosen 80 French adolescents (40 girls, 40 boys) – From center for preventive medicine 60 American adolescents (30 girls, 30 boys) – From suburban high school Conclusions Main cultural differences based on the belief that the real body and the ideal body coincide Physical appearance can change relational experiences Gender differences were shown to be centered more on the level of control of body changes and on self assessment modes Signs of failing body image can differ between individuals, and in the differences in family and parental language about the body Generally, can be attributed to the social representation of the body 75% of American participants rejected any biological predispositions in terms of body shape – Believed it was possible to obtain a perfect body if one tried hard enough – 80% believed in diets and exercise programs – More likely to suffer from self-blame and guilt and adopt unhealthy weight regulating strategies – 75% of girls believed that personal looks depended on looks and would do almost anything to obtain perfect body Less than 50% of French participants believed they could obtain a perfect body – Had perceptions of perfect body image – 75% believed that body image was genetically determined – Only thing blameworthy was physical carelessness Evaluation Cross-cultural study, but both were western countries – Cannot be generalized to non-western countries Small scale survey using self reported data – Unreliable Ecologically Valid – Body image issues is a large problem in society Both Nature and Nurture – Americans believe they can change it by themselves – French believe it is genetically determined Biological and Social French believe that it is biological Americans believe that it is self-determined, and this view is coming from social outlets • Megan Shepherd and Mina Davoudi • • • •

Adolescence and psychological research Erikson (1950 s) Espin et al. (1990)-longitudinal letter study Rutter et al. (1976)-Isle of Wight O’Connell (1976)-married women with children • Condon (1987)-Canadian Inuit • •

Erikson (1950 s)

Erikson (1950 s) • • • • • -ego psychologist (psychological growth is growth of the ego) -stressed importance of social interaction in development (downplayed the role of sex but also even the unconscious mind, focusing more on interpersonal, social, and cultural influences PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES - theoretical (each stage presents own crisis - challenge to one's individual identity) 1. Trust vs. Mistrust - Hope - Infancy (0 to 1. 5) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame - Will - Early Childhood (1. 5 to 3) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt - Purpose - Play Age (3 to 5) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority - Competency - School Age (5 to 12) 5. Ego Identity vs. Role Confusion - Fidelity - Adolescence (12 to 18) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - Love - Young Adult (18 to 40) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation - Care - Adult Hood (40 to 65) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair - Wisdom - Maturity (65+) 9. 80 s+ - by Joan Erikson - loss of autonomy, loss of physical independence, loss of self-esteem, reduced hope and trust - GEROTRANSCENDENCE: feeling of "cosmic communion" with the universe (spiritual connectedness), time being circumscribed (future is limited), reduced mobility (narrowing of personal space), a sense of self expanding to include "a wider range of interrelated others" -will experience both aspects in order to come to a proper resolution -development proceeds according to the epigenetic principle (successful development at each stage was requisite for successful development at later stages) but thought that through psychoanalyis, one could deal with and resolve earlier conflicts later in life. METHOD: personal observation, intuition PROS: spans entire lifetime, emphasized cultural differences, pyschosocial expansion of Freud's strictly biological theory, findings supported by later studies (de St. Aubin, Mc. Adams, & Kim, 2003; Mc. Adams & de St. Aubin, 1998, on generativity, Helson & Pals, 2000; Pals, 1999, Marcia 1966; 1980) CONS: vague and subjective about the causes of development, lack of discrete stages of personality development, wrote about 8 th stage before experiencing for self, masculine psychology (wrote in a male voice) http: //swppr. org/Textbook/Ch%209%20 Erikson. pdf By Kaela and George

Espin et al. (1990)-longitudinal letter study • Participants- One Latin-American girl over a period of 9 years from ages 13 -22. Method- Longitudinal study involving a content analysis of 71 letters that she wrote to her teacher. • Conclusion- Found changes of themes in the letters in relation to age. Themes of identity appeared in earlier letters, and increased from the ages 13 -18 and then declined. Confirms that issues of identity were prominent in this period as predicted by Erikson. • Pros: Longitudinal study, good size of amount of letters used. • Cons: Not generalizable as it was one person, possible deception as it is unknown whether the girl knew her letters were being read, possible confirmation bias as they were trying to prove Erikson's theory. • More nature than nurture. More biological than social or cognitive. • By Sam and Evan

Espin et al. (1990)-longitudinal letter study • • • • Espin’s longitudinal study examined a series of letters (71) written between a Latin American girl and her teacher. These letters detailed the girl’s reflection on her life between the ages of 13 and 22. Analysis of these letters is used as evidence for Erikson’s theory of staged psychosocial development, because themes expressed within purportedly aligned with each age-dictated stage of development. For example, Identity struggle was present from age 13 -18, while intimacy struggle was present after age 19. NATURE, SOCIAL, COGNITIVE The Pros Rich data is complex and complete The study’s ecological validity is notable--natural rather than lab setting not ethically questionable low (or high) risk-benefit (or benefit-risk) ratio [risk/benefit <= 1] The Cons Researcher bias likely present in interpretation social desirability present in the girl’s presentation of her thoughts to her teacher small sample prevents generalizability of conclusion information applies only to a single culture; only single gender vague operationalization--extraction of themes from writing does/does not represents thoughts research is not replicable without extensive bias By John

Rutter et al. (1976)-Isle of Wight • Population (contradicting info): over 2, 000 boys ages 9 -12 living on the Isle of Wight vs. 2, 000 14 -15 year olds AND parents and teachers • Participants underwent questioning on whether particular stage in life was different from previous stages • Questioning revealed minimal depression, 1 in 5 reported feeling miserable and depressed • Study was not cross cultural because it was focused on a specific population • Cognitive/Social study focusing on nurture (impact of society on depression of individuals during adolescence) • By Claire and Kendall

Rutter et al. (1976)-Isle of Wight • • • • In the Isle of Wight studies, Rutter et al (1976), one quarter of the children with specific reading retardation showed antisocial behavior- a rate several times that in the population at large. High rates of conduct problems, restlessness, poor concentration and over activity were seen among retarded readers in middle childhood. Two fifth of the children with antisocial behavior problems were retarded in reading, compared with about 1/20 of those with no disorder. Interviewed over 2000 adolescent boys ages 9 -12 and their families Found boys four times more likely to become delinquents (or emotionally damaged) if separation was related to family discord (parents divorcing for example) Rutter suggests that separation is not always the crucial factor in emotional disturbance. Initial failures to form bonds are more significant than disruption. Generally, family discord and dysfunction are more influential on the child’s emotional development Confounding variables such as strange environments can be to blame for emotional disturbance “Storm and stress” theory: period of adolescence in which teens are in conflict with their parents, are moody, or engage in risky behavior This is more extreme in western culture The Isle of Wight study is testing to see if this theory is true The population was 2000 boys ages 9 -12 on the Isle of Wight Also conducted a study of a group of children in London whose parents had suffered some mental problems Looked for any correlations between separation of a parent and increasing levels of antisocial behaviors He found a positive correlation between the amount of stress children felt and the likelihood of them being involved in antisocial behavior Children whose parents who argue and fight constantly are more likely to behave anti-socially In the Isle of Wight study there were only three cases of depressive disorder in a sample of 2000 children at age 10 4 -5 years later there were nine cases of “pure” depressive disorder and a further 26 cases of mixed affective disorder By Gabbie and Jennifer

O’Connell (1976)-married women with children

O’Connell (1976)-married women with children • Performed retrospective interviews with a sample of married women with children • Women reported changes in identity after adolescence due to marriage, becoming a parent, etc • Indicates that identity formation could be a life-long changing processes related to experiences in adulthood • The woman's self esteem and feelings of self worth are derived from being associated with significant others • The sense of personal identity becomes a crucial issue after her role of wife and mother has been fulfilled • Identity dependency on others causes negative effects on self determination • By Katie and Madison

Condon (1987)-Canadian Inuit • participants- Inuit adolescents and young adults method- interviews and observations over the course of 10 years. First series in 1978 -1980, second in 1982 -1983, and the third in 1987 -1988 • conclusions- After TV and radio were introduced, the population became more aggressive and shifted their methods for conflict resolution, social interactions, and an increase in alcohol abuse. • criticism- Isolated population, many confounding variables, methods not very clear. • nature/nurture- nurture • biological/social/cognitive - social • • http: //iportal. usask. ca/docs/Native_studies_review/v 8/issue 2/pp 35 -49. pdf By Annie

Condon (1987)-Canadian Inuit • • -cross-cultural study on the effects of industrialization on the adolescents in several traditional societies -observations and interviews - reviewed anthropological evidence on the INuit of the Canadian arctic from the start of the 20 th century. At puberty, young women were usually married and had started having children. Young men were treated as adults when they could build an igloo, hung large animals on their own, and support themselves and their families. The difficult living conditions meant that young people had to take care of themselves as soon as possible. The Inuits did not spend time questioning their identity. -Population/Background: Community of Holman (Ulukhaktok) located on the western coast of Victoria Island in the North. West territories of Canada. Due to the extreme isolation of this land, this population was among the last Inuit groups in canada to be influenced by the outside world. Until about 1939 this traditional society remained until the process of settlement began. Part time residence began, and in 1963 the government of holman shipped housing materials to Holman to facilitate the process of population concentration. -explores the response of human behavior and psychology to the environmental variations, using of combination of “traditional” anthropological research techniques involving observation and interviews and a variety of written data sources like health and police records - changes in concentrations of Inuit populations into permanent settlements , the introduction of the southern system of law enforcement, increased economic security, the introduction of alcohol, and attitude changes brought about by southern canadian values. Led to an increase in interpersonal conflict, greater dependence on law enforcement agencies and a change in emotional expression. -among younger generations of inuits there was a noticeable increase in the open expression of verbal hostility and physical violence. -social -nurture -takes advantage of opportunity sample -no empirical evidence -not replicable http: //iportal. usask. ca/docs/Native_studies_review/v 8/issue 2/pp 35 -49. pdf By Haley and Sydney