INTRODUCTION 1 What is a system A regularly

INTRODUCTION 1

What is a system? A regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole A group of interacting bodies under the influence of related forces e. g. gravitational system A group of related natural objects or forces e. g. a river system A group of devices or an organization forming a network, especially for distributing something or serving a common purpose e. g. a telephone, system, a heating system, a highway system, a data processing system An organized set of doctrines, ideas or principles, usually intended to explain the arrangements or working of a systematic whole An organized or established procedure e. g. the typing system Slide 2

Different kinds of systems Natural systems - These exist in nature and are not man made e. g. l l Stellar system: galaxies, solar systems, and so on Geological Systems: Rivers, mountain ranges, and so on Molecular systems: complex organizations of atoms Man-made Systems l l l Social systems; transportation systems; an organized, disciplined collection of ideas; Communication systems; manufacturing systems; financial systems etc. Slide 3

Examples of Systems Education system, Economic system, Political system, Transport system, Business system, Heating system, Security system, Lighting system, Water system, Waste system, Drainage system, Accounting system, Information system, all programs are systems, Library info system, even human beings are systems. Slide 4

Classification of Systems Open system - Is a system which communicates (interacts) with its environment. E. g. Business System, Economic System, Information System, Transport System, Social systems etc. Slide 5

Open systems cont… Open systems can get disorganized i. e. when the system can not reorganize itself according to its internal subsystem forces, the system therefore should be regulated. The process whereby the system is regulated is known as negative feedback. Organisations as open systems attempt to monitor and anticipate environmental Slide 6

Open Systems cont. . Organisations as open systems attempt to monitor and anticipate environmental disturbances. Some disturbances are so great or unexpected that they threaten the existence of the organisation. All business organizations are open systems, for them to exist they must have the capability to adapt in the face of changing markets conditions; globalization, liberalisation, competition, technology, the law, conflict, etc. Slide 7

Characteristics of an open system 1. It must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective. 2. A system contains a set of interacting elements or components. 3. The properties and the behaviour of the system components are inextricably intermingled. 4. An open system comprises of input, output, storage and processing as major elements. 5. A system operates within specified boundaries and interacts with other systems. Slide 8

Characteristics of an open system cont. . 6. A system has some controls and these controls help it not to operate beyond its boundaries. 7. A system must give priority to the objectives of the whole system as compared to the objectives of a subsystem. 8. Successful functioning of each system component depends on the functioning of some other components. Slide 9

Characteristics of an open system cont. . 9. Systems are hierarchical in that, they include other systems i. e. subsystems. Note: Sub-systems can operate as independent systems in their own right. Slide 10

Closed system This is a system that doesn't interact with the environment at all, which means the system doesn't communicate from (no inputs) or to (no outputs) its environment. Whatever happens in the system doesn't affect the environment and vice versa. It corrects and controls itself. Is isolated from its environment. Are self-contained, environmental factors does not influence their behaviour. Slide 11

Closed Systems cont. . They are more relevant to scientific, mechanical and physical systems else all social and economic systems have some interaction with their environment Slide 12

Comparison btw open and closed systems Open System Interacts with environment constantly Has an infinite scope Closed System Doesn't interact or react with the environment at all Has limited scope Relevant variable keep on interacting The variables are self contained Generally flexible and abstract. Rigid and mathematical Slide 13

Systems Thinking Systems thinking is the application of formal systems theory and concepts to systems problem solving. Slide 14

System Concepts A process is work performed on, or in response to, incoming data flows or conditions. Slide 15

Decomposition is the act of breaking a system into its component subsystems, processes, and sub -processes. Each level of abstraction reveals more or less detail. Slide 16

Decomposition Diagrams A decompositio n diagram or hierarchy chart shows the topdown, functional decompositio n of a system. Slide 17

General System Principles The more specialized a system is, the less able it is to adapt to different circumstances. The more “generalpurpose” a system is, the less “optimized” it is for any particular situation; but the more the system is optimized for a particular situation, the less adaptable it will be to new circumstances. The larger a system is, the more its resources that must be devoted to every day maintenance. A large system for example will require an enormous effort in such “unproductive” areas as error checking, editing, backup, maintenance, security and documentation. Slide 18

General System Principles Systems are always part of larger systems and they can always be partitioned into smaller systems. This is important for two reasons: first it suggests an obvious way to organize a computer system that we are trying to develop – by partitioning it into smaller systems. More important, though, it suggests that the definition of the system that we are trying to develop is arbitrary – we could have chosen a slightly smaller system or a slightly larger system. Choosing the scope of a system and defining it carefully so that everyone knows what is inside then system and what is outside is an important activity that shall be considered later on. Slide 19

General System Principles Systems Grow – Typical information system will grow to include more software than initially planned, more data, more functions, and more users. It has been found by researchers of existing systems that the amount of code in an existing automated system increases by approximately 10% per year and the size of the database increases by about 5% each year. One cannot assume that a system one builds will remain static; the cost of expanding it over time should be included in the “cost benefit” calculations for a new system. Slide 20

The human Dimension System failure caused by ‘human and organizational’ issues: l l Lack of planning – may lead to much greater costs and project abandonment. Poor training may result in people not cooperating with the information system leading to failure and project abandonment Failure to take into consideration the users’ business knowledge may similarly lead to people not cooperating with the system leading to project failure and abandonment. Poor methods, techniques and tools in the development of the system – may lead to systems with low reliability, maintainability, efficiency, functionality, and user satisfaction. Slide 21

Information Systems A system which assembles, stores, processes, and delivers information relevant to an organization (or to society), in such a way that the information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including managers, staff, clients, and citizens. An information system is a human activity (social) system which may or may not involve the use of computers Slide 22

IS Components Computer hardware – Computer software – People – Data – Procedures – Slide 23

Types of Information systems Decision Support Systems ( DSS) This is a type of MIS that is more user friendly It‟s a set of programs and hardware that allows managers to interact with it to help make decisions. Its intended to help high level managers in their decision making. Its used in planning, modeling, analyzing alternatives and decision making. It's designed to improve the analytical capability of the decision maker. Slide 24

DSS cont… This system helps to solve semistructured problems. A semi-structured problem is one in which only parts of the problem have a clear-cut answer produced by a well accepted methodology. Slide 25

Objectives of a D. S. S. 1) Analyze unexpected problems. 2) Interprete information flow and decision making activities. 3) Support all management levels 4) Be easy to use yet powerful and flexible. Slide 26

Characteristics/Qualities of an effective D. S. S 1. Its decision focused and provides an access to an array of decision and analytical models. 2. Provides support for unstructured complex decision making problems. 3. Its design is oriented for top management functions where a lot of external information is also used. Slide 27

Characteristics cont. . 4. Presence of a comprehensive database and a model base, providing flexibility, adaptability and quick response to the user. 5. Its suitability to the personnel decision making styles of individual decision makers. 6. Its capability to simulate business decisions mathematically and predict the result that will occur from taking one course of action versus another. 7. It has strong analytical capability. Slide 28

Characteristics cont. . 8. Ability to analyze non-routine problems. 9. In supporting decision making process DSS, neither replaces judgement nor makes a decision for the users. 10. Ease to use i. e. its user friendly. 11. Supports decision making and problem solving at all levels of an organization. 12. Enhance co-ordination between the decision makers especially when many people have to co-operate to make decision. 13. Should be process independent and user controlled so that the user can direct the problem solving or decision making. Slide 29

Executive Support Systems (E. S. S)/Executive Information Systems (E. I. S. ) This is a special easy-to-use MIS designed for top magmt people who are not familiar with computer systems. They use graphics and touch screens to aid senior executives in collecting & obtaining the info they want. Is a software application that seeks to capture expertise in limited domains of knowledge and experience and apply this expertise in order to solve some problems. Slide 30

ESS cont. . ESS provides managers with a flexible means of accessing information of tactical and strategic levels. ESS helps the managers to drill into the data, present the information in appropriate formats and find the information they need whenever they need it. Slide 31

Management Information Systems (MIS)/Information Reporting System (IRS) Provides middle management with reports that summarize & categorise info derived from all the organizations‟ databases. The purpose of the report is to allow magmt to spot trends & to get an overview of current activities, as well as to monitor & control operational-level activities. Note: Although the term MIS is used to refer specifically any type of info system for managers, it is also used to refer specifically to middle management information systems. Slide 32

MIS cont. . The scope of the reports & the features of their info vary according to the purpose. There is less need at the middle-management level for instant info than at the operational level. Reports can be periodic e. g. income statements, balance sheets, on demand or event initiated. Examples of reports generated by an MIS: ü Sales region analysis ü Annual budget analysis ü Capital investment analysis ü Production schedules Slide 33

Transaction Processing System (TPS)/Operations Information System (OIS) Data or information processing systems perform the essential role of collecting and processing the daily transactions of the organisation, hence the alternative term, transaction processing system. Eg ledger keeping, accounts receivable and payable, invoicing, credit control, rate demands and stock movements. TPS represents the lowest level in an organization's use of information systems. They provide management with basic raw materials used for DSS to produce management reports such as sales analysis figures etc. Slide 34

TPS cont. . TPS mainly keep track of elementary and routine activities and transactions of the organisation, such as sales receipts, cash deposit, payroll, credit decisions. Support of day-to-day business operating activities or transactions is the first and most important objective of an information system. A computer-based TPS/Operations Information System or EDP system is focused at the operational level of the business. Slide 35

TPS cont. . The management info produced by TPS consists of detailed reports of daily transactions (e. g. list of items sold or all the accounting transactions that have been recorded in various ledgers and registers or future transactions e. g. list of items that need to be ordered. TPS operate in only within one functional area of business e. g. Marketing, R&D, Accounting & Finance; Production has its own TPS. Slide 36

Characteristics of Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) 1. Are pre-specified (i. e. their functions, decisions, rules and output formats cannot usually be changed by the end-user) 2. Are the source of data for other information systems e. g. DSS 3. Interact with the business environment 4. Are oriented towards the operational level of management. Slide 37

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Is a new field/branch of computer science which researches and seeks, to produce systems that are intelligent i. e. systems that are capable of simulating or mimicking human intelligence. AI involves the ability of the computer to perform human thinking and reasoning. Areas were AI is applied are; Machine learning (to create machines or computer systems that are able to learn new concepts all by themselves); intelligent computer-aided learning systems; intelligent robots; language understanding and communication; machine vision systems; and expert systems (machines that mimic human expertise so that they can be used for day-to-day problemsolving and decision-making in domains of expertise just like human experts, by the experts themselves, or by Slide 38 those less-qualified).

Expert Systems (ESs)/Knowledge-Based Systems(KBSs) Are currently the most commercially successful products of AI research. Have emerged from the field of AI, which is the branch of computer science that is attempting to create computer systems that simulate human reasoning and sensation. Are computer programs that copy the knowledge of human expertise in a particular field. Acts as a consultant or expert to the user. An ESs is a knowledge intensive program that solves a problem involving human expertise. It can assist in decision making activities by asking relevant questions and explaining the reasons for adopting certain actions. Slide 39

Ess Cont. . Such program are important in that: (a) They preserve knowledge of experts that can be lost thro‟ death or retirement. (b) Put info in active form to be summarised immediately. (c) Assist juniors to think like professionals (d) Save time associated with training or employment of experts (e) Are used in different sectors of society to enhance the decisionmaking and problem-solving of experts in various domains. (f) ESs are forms of computer systems with an increasing range of applications within the different domains of expert decisionmaking and problem-solving in all sectors of society. Examples: Medical and Legal expert systems. Slide 40

Office Automation Systems (OAS) This describes the phenomenon of merging computing and telecommunication technologies to produce the electronic office, alias ideal/paperless/ automated/modern office. OAS involves intensive and extensive application (use) of ICT in modern offices. ICT/OAS is the acquisition, processing, storage, and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numeric information by a micro-electronic based combination of computing and telecommunication systems. Slide 41

Objective of office automation system (OAS) 1. Facilitates faster and more accurate data processing operations. 2. Access more extensive data over a short period. 3. Lowers operating costs by reducing labour and clerical expenses 4. Removes/reduce stationery and related resources from offices thus reducing operating costs. 5. Encourages telecommunication integration which altogether reduces production and distribution costs. Slide 42

Spectrum/range/variety of Office Automation Systems (OAS) Electronic Publishing Systems – Manipulate word, numbers and images to meaningful documents like newsletters, books, letters, project proposals, reports etc. This includes: a. Word processing systems b. Desktop publishing (D. T. P. ) systems 2. Electronic Communication Systems a. Electronic mail b. Voice mail (Voice store and forward) – 1. Slide 43

Spectrum cont… Involves use of digitized voice messages rather than electronic text. You first dial the number of voice mail service. In some secure systems, you may be asked to enter an identification code. Once you are accepted, you dial the voice mail number of the person you wish to contact and speak your message. c. Facsimile (Fax) allow organisations send messages in text, video, voice form and transmit copies of document within seconds reducing flow of paper messages. d. Cell phones Slide 44

Spectrum cont. . 3. Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) or Video conferencing – Involve use of video and audio communications to allow conferences & meetings to be held by participants who are scattered across the room, a building, a country or the globe. Reducing need to travel to & from meeting, saving employee time, increase productivity and reduce travel expenses and energy used. Slide 45

Spectrum cont. . 4. Teleconferencing – Is a form of EMS. Sessions are held in real time, with major participants being televised while participants at remote site usually take part with voice input of questions & responses. Several communication carriers & hotel chains now offer teleconferencing services for such events like sales meetings, new product announcements & employee education & training. Slide 46

Spectrum cont. . 5. Office Management Systems (OMS) – Is an office automation category that integrates electronic calendars, tickler files, electronic mail directories, schedulers and task management systems. Provides computer-based support services to managers & other office professional to help them organise their work activities. Office management s/ware computerizes manual methods of planning e. g. paper calendars, appointment books, directories, file folders, memos and notes Slide 47

Spectrum cont. . 6. Telecommuting (Teleworking) – Is the use of telecommunication links by workers to replace commuting to work from their homes or to carry out work activities from temporary locations other than offices & homes. Telecommuter can access their organisations’ network and databases. Telecommuting workers & their colleagues also use e-mail or voice mail to communicate with each other about job assignments. Telecommuting is being tried by major corporations and independent professionals. It‟s most popular with people whose jobs involve a lot of individual work e. g. programmers. It is especially useful for the handicapped persons and working parents of young children. Slide 48

Spectrum cont. . 7. [Document] Image processing – It allows users to electronically capture, store, process & retrieve images of documents that may include numeric data text, h/writing, graphics & photographs. Electronic Document Management (EDM) is based on image processing technology. EDM may interface with other systems e. g. w/processing, DTP, e-mail and voice mail. Image processing has improved productivity and has resulted to significant cost savings. Slide 49

Stakeholders: Players in the Systems Game A stakeholder is any person who has an interest in an existing or new information system. Stakeholders can be technical or nontechnical workers. For information systems, the stakeholders can be classified as: l System owners l System users l Systems analysts l System designers l System builders l IT vendors and consultants Slide 50

System Owners System owners are the information system’s sponsors and chief advocates. They are usually responsible for funding the project to develop, operate, and maintain the information system. Slide 51

System Users System users are the people who use or are affected by the information system on a regular basis—capturing, validating, entering, responding to, storing, and exchanging data and information. A common synonym is client. Types include: l Internal users l Clerical and service workers l Technical and professional staff l Supervisors, middle managers, and executive managers l Remote and mobile users (internal but disconnected) Slide 52 l External users

System Users Operational users are the clerical, operational and administrative people most likely to have the most day to day contact with the new system (unless the system being built is a decision-support system, in which case you may have little or no contact with this group). Operational users are very much concerned with the functions that the system will perform – but they are likely to be even more concerned with the human interface issues. Supervisory user as employed in supervisory role usually to manage a group of operational users and are responsible for their performance. This implies that in an organization you will most likely have more than one level of users. They may have the title of Supervisor, or shift leader, foreman, office manager branch executive, head engineer etc. Many of them are former operational users who have been promoted. Executive level users – They are generally not directly involved in a systems development project, unless the project is so large and so important that it has a major impact on the organization. For the normal project, though, the executive user is usually two or three levels above the action associated with the project. To the extent that you become involved with them you will find the following things about executive users: Slide 53

System Users Another way to categorize users is by the Level of Experience l l l Amateur users are the ones who have never worked with computers or who are just not interested in computers or find them intimidating or irrelevant to their lives. They may find the “language” used by the analyst to describe the features, functions and characteristics of the system to be built, difficult to understand, even though the language avoids obvious computer-related terminology. The second type is the novice user who claims to know exactly what he wants even though they have only worked on one or two projects or even just worked on a computer program. They are prone to point out all the mistakes that the systems analyst made on the last project. This kind of user often will get involved in discussions about the specific technology that will be used to implement the system, instead of assisting to get the user requirements. The third group of users, experienced users or power users are those who really understand systems analysis, as well as the underlying technology of computers (as well as their own business area too). They are a pleasure for the systems analyst to work with. Slide 54

System Designers and System Builders System designers translate system users’ business requirements and constraints into technical solutions. They design the computer files, databases, inputs, outputs, screens, networks, and programs that will meet the system users’ requirements. System builders construct the information system components based on the design specifications from the system designers. In many cases, the system designer and builder for a component are one and the same. Slide 55

Systems Analysts A systems analyst studies the problems and needs of an organization to determine how people, data, processes, communications, and information technology can best accomplish improvements for the business. When information technology is used, the analyst is responsible for: l The efficient capture of data from its business source, l The flow of that data to the computer, l The processing and storage of that data by the computer, and l The flow of useful and timely information back to the business and its people. Slide 56

Variations on the Systems Analysts Title A business analyst is a systems analyst that specializes in business problem analysis and technology-independent requirements analysis. A programmer/analyst (or analyst/programmer) includes the responsibilities of both the computer programmer and the systems analyst. Other synonyms for systems analyst include: l Systems consultant l Systems architect l Systems engineer l Information engineer l Systems integrator Slide 57

Problem-Solving Scenarios True problem situations, either real or anticipated, that require corrective action Opportunities to improve a situation despite the absence of complaints Directives to change a situation regardless of whether anyone has complained about the current situation Slide 58

General Problem-Solving Approach 1. Identify the problem. 2. Analyze and understand the problem. 3. Identify solution requirements or expectations. 4. Identify alternative solutions and decide a course of action. 5. Design and implement the “best” solution. 6. Evaluate the results. If the problem is not solved, return to step 1 or 2 as appropriate. Slide 59

Systems Analysts The systems analyst plays these roles: l l Investigator and scribe – the main job is to uncover detail and to document business policy that may never have been documented before. Innovator – the systems analyst must separate the symptoms of the user’s problem from the true cause. With his or her knowledge of computer technology, the analyst must help the user explore useful, new applications of computers – and new ways for the user to conduct business. Mediator – It will usually be the systems analyst who finds himself in the middle of users, managers, programmers, auditors, and various other players – all of whom frequently disagree with one another. There is a temptation for the systems analyst to try to impose his or her own view of what the system should look or what functions it should contain. But the analyst’s primary job is to achieve a consensus; that requires the delicate art of diplomacy about negotiation. Project Leader – Not universal but since he/she is more experienced than the programmers and since it is systems analysis that come before any other activity on the project, there is usually the tendency to assign project management responsibility to the analyst. Slide 60

The Systems Analyst as a Facilitator/Mediator Slide 61

Skills Required by Systems Analysts Working knowledge of information technology Computer programming experience and expertise General business knowledge Problem-solving skills Interpersonal communication skills Interpersonal relations skills Flexibility and adaptability Character and ethics Systems analysis and design skills Slide 62

ISSUES IN SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT Slide 63

Productivity This is the rate of completion of a project. Productivity may be affected by Application backlog. l Three types of the application Backlog: l Visible backlog: - Systems that the users have officially requested and have been approved and funded by appropriate management committees. However, the projects are yet to be started because of inadequate resources (i. e. systems analysts, programmers, etc. ) Slide 64

Productivity Invisible backlogs: - new systems that the users know they want, but have not bothered to ask for through “official” channels because they are still waiting for projects in the visible backlog to be completed l Unknown backlog: - Systems that the users don’t even know they want yet, but that will be identified soon as any of the systems in the visible and invisible backlog are finished l Slide 65

Application Backlog Invisible backlog is 5. 35 times larger than the visible backlog – Sloan School of Business (MIT) Study For the systems that take long to develop, by the time they are complete, the business conditions will have changed so drastically that the original requirements will no longer be relevant. In some organizations is that some projects turn out to be dismal failures and are cancelled by management before they are ever finished. l Various surveys have found that as many as 25% of all projects of large MIS organizations are never finished. Slide 66

Application Backlog To deal with the application backlog, various strategies have been adopted: Hiring more programmers and analysts Hiring more talented programmers and analysts, and giving them superior working conditions and tools. l Letting users develop their own systems. l Better Programming languages l Attacking the maintenance problem l Software Engineering Disciplines: l Automated tools for systems development: l Slide 67

Productivity The systems analyst is very key to the issue of productivity: The quality of work performed by the systems analyst can have tremendous impact on the productivity of the systems designer and programmer l It can also have a tremendous effect on the amount of time spent testing [ 50% of the errors (and 75% of the cost of error removal) in a system are usually associated with errors of systems analysis. l Slide 68

Reliability the systems produced by organizations around the world are riddled with errors and are almost impossible to change. On average, software developed in American organizations has between three to five errors for every hundred program statements – after the system has been tested and delivered to the customer. Slide 69

Reliability In statistical terms: "the probability of failure free operation of a computer program in a specified environment for a specified time. " A simple measure of reliability is mean time between failure (MTBF): MTBF = MTTF + MTTR MTTF and MTTR are mean time to failure and mean time to repair, respectively. Slide 70

Many researchers argue that MTBF is a far more useful measure than defects. A user is concerned with failures, not with the total error count. Because each error contained within a program does not have the same failure rate, the total error count provides little indication of the reliability of a system. For example, consider a program that has been in operation for 14 months. Many errors in this program may remain undetected for decades before they are discovered. The MTBF of such obscure errors might be 50 or even 100 years. Other errors, as yet undiscovered, might have a failure rate of 18 or 24 months. Even if every one of the first category of errors (those with long MTBF) is removed, the impact on software reliability is negligible Slide 71

Reliability Software errors range form the trivial to the ridiculous. A trivial error might consist of output that are correct, but not printed or formatted quite as neatly and tidily as the user desires. Serious errors can cause entire program to stop working, with an associated major loss of money or human life. Slide 72

Reliability Examples of some serious software – related errors: An error in the F 16 flight simulation program caused the plane to flip upside down whenever it crossed the equator. l In 1979, the SAC/NORAD (Strategic Air Command/North American Air Defense) system recorded fifty false alerts, including a simulated attack whose outputs accidentally triggered an live "scramble" l Slide 73

Reliability Examples Cont. . An F 18 missile thrust while it was still clamped to the plane, causing the plane to loose 20, 000 feet in altitude. l A NORAD alert from the Ballistic Missile Early warning System (BMEWS) detected the moon as an incoming missile l Slide 74

Reliability Many software error are never reported because the “guilty” individual or organization would rather not make a public confession. The typical phenomenon of error discovery, over the period of several years of useful life of a software system usually takes the form shown below: Slide 75

Elapsed Time Slide 76 No. of Bugs Discovered

Maintainability The correction of on going errors is one aspect of maintenance; it accounts for approx. 21% of the overall maintenance effort in the American MIS organizations according to research done. Maintenance also entails modification of a system to reflect changes in the hardware, modifications to speed up certain operational aspects of the system, or modifications to reflect a change in the end user’s requirements of the system. Slide 77

Maintainability Software maintenance is a major problem for most organizations; between 50% and 80% of the work done in most systems development organizations is associated with the revision, modification, conversion, enhancement, or debugging of a computer program that someone else wrote long ago. It is expensive work; in the 1970 s, the US Defense Department reported that the cost of developing computer programs on one project averaged $75 per computer instruction; the cost of maintaining the system ran as high as $4, 000 per instruction. Slide 78

Efficiency A system must operate with an appropriate throughput (usually measured in transactions per sec) and with an acceptable response time for on -line terminals. This is not usually an issue for the systems analysts to worry about, since the designers and programmers will have the most influence on the overall efficiency of the implemented system. Slide 79

Portability Most new systems are implemented on one model of computer, but there may be a need to develop the system in such away that it can be easily moved to different computers Increasingly, with the influx of Commercial Off-the-shelve Software Packages, portability is a must Slide 80

Security As the accessibility of modern computers become more and more, especially with the networks and the Internet, and since they keep processing and storing more and more sensitive information, security is becoming a major issue for many systems development projects; the new system must prevent unauthorized access, as well as unauthorized updating or deletion of sensitive information. Slide 81