Unit2 Social anthropology 1 Society The society is

Unit-2 Social anthropology 1. Society : • The society is defined based on the two different views i. e. Functional and structural • From the functional point of view, society is defined “as a complex of groups in reciprocal relationships, interacting up on one another, enabling human organisms to carry on their life activities helping each persons to fulfill his wishes and accomplish his interests in association with his fellows”.

Contd. • Similarly from the structural point of view, “Society is the total social heritage folkways, mores and institutions; of habits, sentiments and ideas” • Moreover, the society is to be interpreted in a wide sense. “ It is both structural and functional organizations. It consists in the mutual inter- relations of the individuals but it is also a structure formed by these relations. It is a pattern, a system and not the people. ”

Contd. • According to Maciver & Page “ Society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behavior and of liberties “ • According to Parsons “ Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships in so far as they grow out of action in terms of mean-end relationships, intrinsic or symbolic”

2. Culture • In common manner of speaking the word “culture” is understood to mean beautiful, refined or interesting. • But this interpretation does not constitute its scientific definition. • Culture is precisely defined in sociology. According to Tylor “ culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”

Contd. • According to Arnold and W. Green “Culture is the socially transmitted system of idealized ways in knowledge, practice, and belief, along with the artifacts that knowledge and practice produce and maintain as they change in time. ” • According to Graham Wallas “Culture is an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects, it is the social heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through learning, as distinguished from the biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically through the genes”

Sub division/Branches of Culture: A. Material culture • Concrete objects Example: Pens, Radio, clothing, tools, paintings, Idols B. Non-Material culture • Abstract creation Example: Language, literature, law, arts, religion etc.

Contd. Nepal's culture is greatly influenced by its music, architecture, religion and literature. The various temples, churches, monasteries and other religious buildings are on the every corner of Nepal.

Contd.

Characteristic s of culture: • Culture is obviously man made • Culture is an acquired quality • Culture is social , not individual heritage of man • Culture is an idealistic • Culture is total social heritage. • Culture fulfills some social and ethical needs. • Culture is an integrated system • Language is chief vehicle of culture • Culture evolves in to more complex forms through division of labor which develops special skills and increases the interdependence of society’s members.

Institutions: • Normally people use the word institution to mean an organization with some specific purpose, as a public or charitable institution. Some times it is used to denote any set of people in organized interaction as a family or club or government. • Every organization is dependent upon certain recognized and established set of rules, traditions and usages. These usages and rules may be given the name of institutions. Thus marriage, education and religion are the main institutions.

Contd. • Institutions have been defined by Maciver as the “established forms or conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity. ” • According to Woodward and Maxwell “An institution is a set or web of inter-related folkways, mores, and laws which enter in some function or functions” • According to Gillin & Gillin “ A social institution is functional configuration of culture pattern (including actions, ideas, attitudes and cultural equipment ) which possess a certain permanence and which is intended to satisfy felt social needs “

Characteristics of institutions: • Institutions are the means of controlling individuals • Institution depend upon the collective activities of man • The institutions has some proceedings which are formed on the basis of customs and dogmas • Institution is more stable than other means of social control • Every institutions has some rules which must be compulsorily obeyed by the individual • Every institution has got a symbol which may be material or non material • Institutions are formed to satisfy the primary needs of men, It has social recognition behind it.

Importance of institution 1. Institution transfers the cultural elements from one generation to another 2. It introduces unity in human behaviour 3. It controls their conducts and guides man according to circumstances 4. Provides definite role and status to individual 5. The parents learn their place and child learns his duties towards the parents or elders in the society through institution 6. Institution maintains unity and harmony in the society 7. Provides a unified patterns of diverse ways of human behavior and actions

Social Class • A class is a social hierarchy of the status of the individual in the society • Each social class has its status in society in accordance with which it receives prestige in the society • According to Ogburn and Nimkoff a social class is "one or two or more broad groups of individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior positions"

Contd. • According to Lapiere “ A social class is a culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position or status within the population as a whole “ • Generally three types of distinct behavior found in the society regarding the class: - A feeling of equality, in relation to members of one's own class, Individuals belonging to the same social class are expected to maintain similar standards of life, and to choose their occupations within a limited range

Contd. - There is feeling of inferiority in relation to those who stand above in the social scale. - There is the feeling of superiority to those below in the social hierarchy. The fundamental attribute of a social class its social position of relative inferiority or superiority to other social cases. It is the social position which determines for its possessor the degree of respect, prestige and influence

Types of Social Class A. Burgeoise system /class is the system in which the wage earners were contrasted with the owners of the industry and capital. With the industrial revolution, the class structure of medieval society underwent a change in to two classes: • Capitalist: - The capitalist owned the means of production and wielded great political power enjoying thereby high status. • Proletariat: - The industrial workers dispossessed of wealth, divorced from the management of all enterprise and deprived from any saying on the product to their labor. They could only sell their labor.

B. Middle Class: The division of society into capitalists and proletariat was not, however, the final division of society. A new class, middle class, arose which modified the classical capitalist proletarian dualism of social structure. The middle class signifies the stand below the capitalist and above the proletariat class.

Contd. Middle class can be divided into three sub division in terms of income and standard of living: • Upper middle class • Middle class • Lower middle class

Basis of class formation A. In general according to Cooley I. Marked differences in the constituent part of the population. II. Little communication and enlightenment III. A slow rate of social change • • B. In specific ways I. Property, wealth and income II. Family and kinship III. Location of residence IV. Duration of residence V. Nature of the profession VI. Education

Characteristics of Social Class • Class is group of similar status • Social class is achieved status • The class system is universal • Class consciousness • Hierarchy of group • Social class is open group • Flexible • Restricted social relations • Common mode of life • Competitive and conflict System • Birth is not important

Caste The word caste is the modified form of Spanish word "Casta" which means "breed", "race“ (breed- kind or variety with hereditary qualities, Race-any of several sub-division of man kind sharing certain physical characteristics especially color of skin, hair, shape of the eyes and nose)

Contd. • According to Anderson & Parker “Caste is that extreme form of social class organization in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth • According to Risley “ Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, professing to follow the same heredity calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogenous community”

Caste systems in Nepal has been recognized as a Hindu country in world in the past and based on the Hindu ideology, the caste system in Nepal has been classified in to four different categories: 1. Brahman 2. Kshetri/Chhetri 3. Baishya 4. Sudra

1. Bramin/Brahman The Brahman has been classified based on two different system i. e. Migration and marriage systems. Based on the migration; – Kumai Brahman- Migrated for east and settled in Kumau area from the very beginning – Purbia Brahman-Migrated for west and settled in the west from the very beginning

Similarly based on the marriage systems: • Upadhyaya Brahman- Those Brahman who married Brahman girls by following the prescribed cultural and religious methods and process. • Jaisi Brahman- Those Brahman who married Brahman girls without observing any prescribed cultural and religious practices.

Contd. II. Chhetri/Kshetri- All types of Brahman surname is common in Chhetri also, except Karki, Khadka, Basnet, Raut, Thapa, Kunwar. Racially both Brahman and Chhetri are Indo. Aryan. III. Baisya- All other surname except Brahmin and Chhetri in to so called touchable are in the Baisya group IV. Sudra- All surnames categorized as so called untouchable fall under the caste of Sudra.

Characteristics/Feature of Caste • • Segmental Division of Society Social and religious hierarchy Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse Endogamy Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation Civil and religious disabilities Caste is a real, actual organized group: -

Merits of Caste System • • Trade union and orphanage Spirit of cooperation Defines economic pursuits ( carrying out/ perform) Racial purity Provides for various function Cultural diffusion ( spread up/ sent out) Influences intellectual make up

Demerits of Caste System • • Denies mobility of labour Un-touchability Solidarity retarted Wrong man in occupation Obstacle to national unity Obstacle to social progress Undemocratic Promotes casteism

Caste Difference between Caste and Class • Caste is constant • Class is changeable • Caste is Indian/Hindu origin • Class is European origin/western origin • It regards the individual attributes, ability • It does not care of individual attributes, ability • The social relations are formal and stable • The caste system is conservative • It is birth -ascribed status • Caste system hinder the democracy • Social relations are informal and unstable • The class system is progressive • It is an achieved status • Class system does not hinder the democracy

Role and Status • Roles The social system is based on a division of a labor in which every person is assigned a specific task to perform. The task performed by an individual makes up the role he is expected to pay in the life of his community. Eg: Doctors, Engineers, etc.

Contd. Ogburn and Nimkoff defined that; a role is "a set of socially expected and approved behavior patterns, consisting of both duties and privileges, associated with a particular position in a group. ” Status: The term status used to designate the comparative amounts of prestige, difference or respect accorded to persons who have been assigned different roles in a group or community.

Contd. • The status of a person is high if the role, he is playing, is considered important by the group. If the role is regarded less high, its performer may be accorded lower status • Thus the status of a person is based on social evaluations. • According to Bukman, "status is the worth of a person as estimated by a group or a class of persons".

Determinants of Status According to Bukman; the determinants of status are as follow; • The capacity of a person for rewarding those with whom he interacts; • The extent to which he is receiving rewards; • The type of costs he incurs, and his investment.

Types of status • Ascribed Status: Those assigned by culture and society for individual based on sex, age, race etc. • Achieved Status: Those obtained through competition and individual efforts, like education, occupation, knowledge etc.

Family The word family has been taken over from the Roman word “Famulus” It has two different meanings: • Meaning a servant- In Roman law, the word denoted the group of producers and slaves and other servants. • The members connected by common descent or marriage. The term “Family” has been used here to denote the second meaning i. e. The members connected by common descent or marriage.

Contd. • According to Maciver “Family is a group defined by a sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children” • As per the American Bureau of the Census ( ABC) “ Family is a group of two or more persons related by blood, marriage or adoption and residing together; all such persons are considered as members of one family”

Characteristics features of family • • • Mating relationship A form of marriage A system of nomenclature( system of naming) A common habitation Universality-most universal group/ 1 st institution in the history of man • Limited size • Nuclear position- Nucleus of all the social groups

Forms/ types of family A. On the basis of the authority 1. The patriarchal family Male head of the family is possessed of inclusive power. He is the owner and administrator of the family property and rights. He is guardian of the family. Characteristics : – The wife after marriage comes to live in the home of the husband – The father is the supreme lord of the family property – Descent is reckoned (reclaimed) through the father. Children are known by the name of the family of their father.

Contd. – Children can inherit the property of their father only. It means they have no rights over the property of mother’s family. 2. Matriarchal family: It is said to prevail among the primitive peoples who led a wandering or hunting life. The father in the hunting stage roamed for a wide and mother had to be active and ruled the family.

Characters • Descent is reckoned through the mother, not the father. • Marriage relations are transient (for short time only). The husband is sometimes merely a casual visitor • Children’s are brought up in the home of wife’s relatives(matrilocal) • Authority in the family rests in the hands of wife or of her kin. • Property is transferred through mother and only female succeed to it.

B. On the basis of structure I. Nuclear family: II. Joint family: C. On the basis of marriage system • Polygamous family: In this kind of family one man maries many women at one time. • Polyandrous family: In this kind of family, one woman marries many men and lives with all of them.

Function of family: • • • The regulation of sexual behavior and reproduction Care and training of children Cooperation and division of labour Primary group satisfaction Affectional Protective Race perpetuation Socialization Regulation and satisfaction of sex needs Economic function

Importance of family • The family is very important part of every day life of an individual • Family can provide encouragement during the life. • Family helps to create a future of an individual. • Family tend to push towards valued goals in life • The first school or educator in child’s life is the family. • How you behave, and what you become in a life is very much dependent on your family life. • The way your family members deal with you has a life long effect on your personality

Kinship • The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in group is called kinship • According to anthropological understanding kinship system includes socially recognized relationships based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties. • According to Radcliffe “ Kinship is genealogical relationship recognized for social purposes and made the basis of customary relation of social relation”

Types of kinship • Affinal kinship- The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. Marriage creates a host of relationships which are called affinal kin. After marriage person becomes not only husband but brother in law and vice versa • Consanguineous kinship- The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The bond between parents and children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle, nephew and cousin are consanguineous kin • Fictional kinship- In this type of kinship they have neither marriage relationship nor blood relationship but have strong relationship to each other which is socially accepted with the name of “Mit “ Dharma Putra “ etc.

Significance of Kinship • The affinal kinship or the marriage constructs alliances between the families. • It gives social strength and security to the families. • The personal reputations of the individual depend on the quality and number of their allied kin. • One of the most important and essential things that every one must have in order to live to great and joyful life is family and associated kinship. • Kinship has a power to make families unite and assist each other. • The kinship can support the family to keep the success advancing towards the future.

Assimilation • Assimilation is the process whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of other group in which they come to live by adopting its attitudes and values • Assimilation implies complete merging of divergent cultural groups within a society and has been defined as a process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups become culturally alive • According to Horton and Hunt “ The process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups come to share a common culture is called assimilation”

The hindrance and aids to assimilation I. The favoring factors or aids of assimilation According to Gillin & Gillin; • Toleration • Equal economic opportunity • Sympathetic attitude • Exposure to the dominant culture II. Hindrance or retardation of assimilation • Isolating condition of life • Attitudes of the superiority • Excessive physiological, cultural and social differences between the groups • The background occupational skills of new comers

Socialization This is obvious that when the human infant comes in to the world as biological organism with animal needs, he is gradually moulded in to a social being and he learns social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding: • The society could not continue itself • Culture could not exist • Individual could not become a person • Therefore, this process of moulding is called socialization.

Contd. According to Gillin and Gillin “ By the term ‘socialization’ we mean the process by which individual develops into a functioning member of the group according to its standards conforming to its modes, observing its traditions and adjusting himself to the social situations” Factors of process of socialization Socialization is the process of learning group norms, habits and ideas. There are four factors of the process of learning: • Imitation- Imitation is copying by one of the action of another • Suggestions- Suggestions influence not only behavior of other but himself • Identification- Self exploration • Language- Language is the means of social transmission.

Theories of socialization As per the socialization theory, the heart of the socialization is the development of self ( independent , taught by oneself). What is meant by self? -I, me, myself, hismself concept, sum total of his perceptions of himself, his attitude towards himself. 1. Cooley’s Theory: • Cooley’s concept of the self development has been termed as “Looking-Glass Self” concept. According to him, man develops the concept of the self with the help of the others

There are three principle elements of the looking glass concept: • Our perception of how we look to others • Our perception of their judgments of how we look • Our feelings about these judgments.

2. Mead’s Theory: • According to the George H. Mead, the self develops out of the child’s communicative contact with others. • The new-born human infant has needs like those for food and clothing that press for satisfaction. • The mother satisfies these needs and the child comes to depend up on her and identifies himself with her emotionally

Contd. • According to Mead, self can be both subject and object itself. • The self is not something that exists first and then enters into relationship with others. • It is something that develops out of social interaction and is constantly changing, constantly adjusting as new situation and conflict arise.

3. Freud’s Theory: The theories of Cooley and Mead presume a basic harmony between the self and society. According to Cooley, society and individual are not separate phenomena but are simply collective and distributive aspects of the same thing. Sigmund Freud does not agree with the concept of self and society. According to him, the self and society are not identical. He has explained the process of socialization in terms of his concepts of ‘Id’ ‘Ego’ and ‘Super Ego’ which constitutes the three system of mind:

Cont. • The Id is the organ of untamed (not changed) passions (very strong feeling) and represents instinctive desires. • The Ego acts with reason • The Super Ego acts with ideals and norms. There is a conflict between Id and Ego. The Freud has compared the Id with the horse and the Ego with the rider. He says” the function of the Ego is that of the rider guiding the horse, which is the Id. But like the rider, the Ego sometimes is unable to guide the horse as it wishes and perforce must guide the Id in the direction it is determined to go or in a slightly different direction.

Agencies of socialization • The family • School • The playmates or friends • The temple/ Church • The state- Develop laws, rules and regulations. Sanskritization : All human societies from the simplest to the most complex have same form of social inequalities.

Contd. • In particular, power, prestige and wealth are unequally distributed between the individuals and group. • Social stratification is particular form of social inequalities. • The movement from one stratum to another is known as social mobility and the Sanskritization is the means of social mobility. • The concept of the Sanskritization has propounded by an Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas.

Contd. According to him “ Sanskritization is the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and ways of life in the direction of a higher caste, cultures and families” The non-dominating castes starts emulating (try to do as well as or better than) the ways of life of the dominating castes

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the tendency of man to consider his own culture of high value and superior to all others, and to judge other cultures in terms of standards and values that exists in one's own culture. Ethnocentrism is the view that one particular ethnic group is somehow superior to all others Ethnocentrism is the concept of viewing all cultures through the lens of your own culture

Effects of Ethnocentrism: • It promotes loyalty to groups • It makes far greater conformity within the groups • Creates pressure from the group on those who tend to deviate • It causes resistance to change and strengthens the status of the groups. Reason for Ethnocentrism • We became ethnocentric because of our habits of food, clothes/fashion, working style and enjoyment • Individuals became ethnocentric because they lack understanding • We became ethnocentric because we have been taught accordingly. • We are ethnocentric because of our personal inadequacies

Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism is the view that individual beliefs and values systems are culturally relative. That is, no one ethnic group has the right to say that their particular system of beliefs and values, their worldview, is in any way superior to anyone else’s system of beliefs and values. What’s right for one culture might be wrong for another and that’s alright. There is no absolute standard of right and wrong by which to compare and contrast morally contradictory cultural values.

Religion Ø A collection of the beliefs that help people understand the world and the events that takes place in it Ø This often ( but not always) involves worshiping a god or gods. Ø Religion as “ those institutionalized systems of beliefs, symbols, values and practices that provide groups of men with solutions to their questions of ultimate being” Ø According to Arnold W. Green “Religion is a system of beliefs and symbolic practices and objects governed by faith rather than by knowledge, which relates man to an unseen supernatural realm beyond the known and beyond the controllable. ”

Contd. According to Anderson and parker, each religion consists of four primary components or the common characteristics: • Belief in super natural forces • Man’s adjustments to super natural power. • Acts defined as Sinful (Pap, Adharma in Nepali) • Method of salvation (Moksha, Mukti in Nepali ) Forms of religion 1. Superstition ( Andha bishwas) 2. Animism ( Atma/ Aatmabad in Nepali 3. Magic 4. Ceremonialism 5. Fetishism

Importance of Religion 1. Explains individual suffering 2. Enhances self importance 3. A source of social cohesion 4. Social welfare 5. Agency of social control 6. Religion controls and affects economic life also 7. Friendship function

Holism, System Approach System- System is a set of interconnected variables, change in any one of which will affect all the others. Holism- The term Holism is derived from Greek word “Holos” meaning all, whole, entire The holism is the idea that all the properties of a given system (physical , biological, chemical , social and political) cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone. With socio-anthropological views, holism is used to refer an analysis of a society as a whole which refuges to break society into component parts

System Approach Ø The system approach integrates the analytic and synthetic method, encompassing both holism and reductionism. Ø It was first proposed under the name of “General System Theory” by Von Bertalanffy. Ø The general system theory is based on the assumptions that there are universal principles of organization, which hold for all systems be they physical, chemical, biological mental or social etc. Ø The general system theory involves the consideration of such issues as the degree of wholeness, nature of sub systems, mechanisms of feed-back, communication and information processing, goal seeking, self-regulation, structural integration, adaptation and pattern- maintenance.

Importance of the System Approach • A common vocabulary unifying the several ‘behavioral’ disciplines. • A technique for treating large, complex organizations. • A synthetic approach where ‘piece-meal’ analysis is not possible due to the intricate relationships of parts that cannot be treated out of context of whole. • A view point that gets at the heart of sociology because it sees the socio-cultural systems in terms of information and communication. • The study of relations rather than ‘entities’ with an emphasis on process and transition probabilities as the basis of a flexible structure with many degrees of freedom in scientific education

Gender and Feminism Gender- When we talk about the term gender, then we should not forget to understand the term sex also. Sex refers to the biologically determined differences between all men and women throughout the world. It is biological, given (natural), cannot be changed and universal. The term gender on the other hand is different. Simply the term gender is way of talking about the men and women. • Gender refers to the social differences between men and women that are learned, changeable over time and have wide variations within and between the cultures. It is culturally based, learned behavior, changeable and different in different societies and culture.

Feminism • Simply the feminism is the belief and aim that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men. • Feminism is a social theory and political movements primarily informed and motivated by the experiences generally providing a critiques of social relations, many proponents of feminism also focus on analyzing and the promotion of women’s rights, interest and issues. • The basis of feminist ideology is that rights, privilege, status and obligations should not be determined based on the sex differences.

The feminist theory aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses on gender politics and power relations with the issues on: • Reproductive rights • Domestic violence • Maternity • Sexual harassment • Discrimination and • Sexual violence Feminism is a social movement that questions gender inequalities and tries to change them