Introductory Psychology Memory AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT VI Introduction

Introductory Psychology: Memory AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT VI

Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? �Memory storage is never automatic; it always takes effort False �When people go around a circle saying their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person directly in front of them True

Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? �Memory aids (for example, those that use imagery and devices for organization) are no more useful than simple rehearsal of information False �Only a few people have any type of photographic memory False

Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? �Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are still limited in the number of permanent memories we can form False �When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when intoxicated True

Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? �The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to memory True �The confidence of eyewitnesses is an important predictor of their accuracy False

Memory: The Basics PART ONE

Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)

Memory: The Basics �Memory An active system that receives information from the senses, puts it into a usable form, organizes it while storing it away, and then retrieves it from storage � Any indication that learning has persisted over time The mind’s storehouse with all accumulated learning

Memory: The Basics �Three big questions… How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?

Memory: The Basics Entering data through a keyboard Saving data to a flash drive Displaying data on a monitor

Memory: Encoding PART TWO “Get that info in there. . !”

Memory: Encoding �Encoding The set of mental operations performed on sensory information to convert it into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems � Types of Encoding Automatic Processing • Unconscious processing of incidental information • Space, time, frequency and well-learned information • Example: Flashbulb Memories Effortful Processing • Conscious processing that requires attention and effort • Example: Rehearsal

Memory: Encoding �Memory Effects Next-in-Line-Effect � When we are next in line, we focus on our own performance & often fail to process the last person’s words Spacing Effect � We retain information better when we rehearse over time Serial Position Effect � Our list tendency to recall best the last and first terms in a

Levels of Processing

Memory: Encoding �Visual/Structural Encoding The encoding of images Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus Level of Processing � SHALLOW Example � Extravagant “Is the word written in capital letters? ” � Boy “How many letters are in this word? ”

Memory: Encoding �Acoustic/Phonemic Encoding The encoding of sound Emphasizes what a word sounds like Level of Processing � INTERMEDIATE Example � Bait “Does the word rhyme with weight? ”

Memory: Encoding �Semantic Encoding The encoding of meaning Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input Level of Processing � DEEP Example � Bobcat Would the word fit in the sentence: “He met a ______ on the street? ”

Craik & Lockhart (1972)

Encoding Enrichment

Memory: Encoding �Elaboration Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding � Helps to enhance semantic encoding � Example You read that phobias are often caused by classical conditioning You apply this idea to your own fear of spiders Self-Referent Encoding � People’s recall of information tends to be slanted in favor of material that is relevant to them

Memory: Encoding �Visual Imagery The creation of visual images to represent words; can be used to enrich encoding � Facilities memory by providing a second kind of code Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986) � Memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall Concrete v. abstract words • • High-high (juggler-dress) High-low (letter-effort) Low-high (duty-hotel) Low-low (quality-necessity)

Memory: Encoding �Mnemonics Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices � Two helpful mnemonic methods Method of Loci • Matching items with an imagined location Link Method (“Peg-Word” Method) • Memorize a ditty and then apply to topic �“One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is a swine, ten is a hen”

Memory: Encoding �Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically 1– 7– 7– 6– 1– 4– 9– 2– 1– 8– 1– 2– 1– 9– 4– 1 Acronyms are another way of chunking information… HOMES PEMDAS ROYGBIV

Memory: Encoding �Hierarchy Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories � Increases the likelihood of recall and recognition Outline notes, concept maps, flow charts, etc.

Memory: Storage PART THREE “Keep that info in there. . !”

Memory: Storage �Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage (1971) Three stores of memory are shown below

Memory: Storage �Sensory Memory Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second � Iconic Memory Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli Lasts no more than a half a second � Echoic Memory Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Lasts no more than 4 seconds

Memory: Storage �Short-Term Memory (STM) A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 10 -20 seconds � Capacity (George Miller, 1956) 7± 2 items Even less in more modern studies? � Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about 4 chunks in short-term memory FB-INB-CC-IAIB-M FBI-NBC-CIA-IBM � How to increase duration? Capacity?

Memory: Storage �Long-Term Memory (LTM) An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time � Though we have a huge capacity for storage, we don’t store most information with exactness

Memory: Storage �Physical Location of Memories Memory is NOT stored in a single spot Synaptic Change � When learning occurs serotonin is released by the neurons of certain synapses Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) � Synaptic enhancement after learning An increase in the release of neurotransmitter or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates the strengthening of synapses

Types of Memory

Memory: Storage �Implicit Memory Without conscious recall Nondeclarative Memory Actions, skills, conditioned responses & emotional responses � Also known as Procedural Memory Skill Memory • Riding a bike, typing, tying one’s shoes Automatic Reactions • Tensing up at the sound of a dentist’s drill

Memory: Storage �Explicit Memory Conscious recall Declarative Memory Recollection of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts and ideas � Two types of Explicit Memories Semantic Memory • General knowledge that is not tied to a specific time Episodic Memory • Chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences

Representation & Organization

Memory: Storage �How is knowledge represented and organized in memory? Conceptual Hierarchies Schemas Semantic Networks Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models

Brewer & Treyens (1981) Schema Demonstration

Memory: Storage �Semantic Networks Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts � Less systematic than conceptual hierarchies and/or schemas

Memory: Storage �Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks � Consists of large networks of interconnected nodes � Operate much like neurons (excitatory/inhibitory effects) � Asserts that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks

Memory: Retrieval PART FOUR “Get that info out of there. . !”

Memory: Retrieval �Measures of Memory Recall �A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve/reproduce information in the absence of cues Recognition �A measure of memory in which a person must identify items previously learned Relearning �A measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

Retrieval Cues

Memory: Retrieval �Retrieval Cues Stimuli that help gain access to stored memories; serve as anchor points � Mnemonic Devices � Priming � Context � Déjà Vu Cues

Memory: Retrieval �Priming The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Often referred to as “memory-less memory” � Occurs without explicit remembering

Memory: Retrieval �Context Effects Involves placing yourself in the context where you initially experienced something � Helps to prime memory retrieval May trigger déjà vu � Cues from the current situation that may subconsciously trigger the retrieval of a similar experience in one’s past

Mood & Memories

Memory: Retrieval �State-Dependent Memory What someone learns in particular state, is more easily recalled when he/she is again in that state � Someone who hides money while drunk may forget its location until drunk again

Memory: Retrieval �Mood-Congruent Memory We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood � In a bad mood, one may interpret someone’s look as a glare � In a good mood, one may encode the same look as interest

Memory: Forgetting PART FIVE “Where’d that info go? ”

Memory: Forgetting �Forgetting The inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage or retrieval � The SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY Absent-mindedness Transience Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence

Memory: Forgetting �Encoding Failure Obviously, we will not remember what we fail to encode � Without encoding, information never enters into one’s long-term memory EXAMPLE: Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test NOTE: Age can impact encoding…

Memory: Forgetting �Storage Decay Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay � Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) The Forgetting Curve • The course of forgetting is initially rapid, but levels off over time

Memory: Forgetting �Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed � You may lack the information needed to retrieve it Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Memory: Forgetting �Proactive Interference (Forward) The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information � As you collect more information, your mental “attic” becomes cluttered � Example You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number Your memory of the old phone number interferes with the new one

Memory: Forgetting �Retroactive Interference (Backward) The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information � Example You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number Your new phone number interferes with your memory of the old one Sleep prevents retroactive interference & leads to better recall

Memory: Forgetting �Motivated Forgetting The unknowing revision of memories � Freud proposed that our memory systems do indeed selfcensor painful information � Repression A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness Memory researchers think repression, rarely, if ever, occurs

Let’s Review… �Ellen can’t recall the provisions of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo because she was daydreaming when it was discussed in history class Ineffective encoding (lack of attention) �Rufus hates his job at Taco Haven & constantly forgets when he is scheduled to work Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)

Let’s Review… �Ray’s new assistant is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin. Proactive Interference �Tania studied history on Sunday morning & sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps confusing prominent historians with influential sociologists. Retroactive Interference

Memory: Reconstruction PART SIX

Memory: Reconstruction �Misconception Memory is a mental videotape that can provide faithful reproductions of past events �Reality Countless studies in recent decades have demonstrated that memories are incomplete, distorted, fuzzy reconstructions of past events The adjectives that best describe memory are not exact or accurate, but rather fragile, fallible and malleable

Memory: Reconstruction �The Misinformation Effect The incorporation of misleading information into one’s memory of an event � Eyewitnesses must reconstruct their memories when questioned about an event; rarely accurate � Loftus & Palmer (1974) The Automobile Accident Test Group A: Hit Group B: Smashed Weeks later…broken glass? Impact of storytelling on memories?

Memory: Reconstruction �Reality Monitoring Refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations) � Impact of sensory and/or contextual information? Did I take my medicine this morning? Did I lock my car door? Did I turn off the oven? Did I pack my umbrella?

Memory: Reconstruction �Source Monitoring Involves making attributions about the origins of memories � Did I read that in the NY Times or in Rolling Stone? � Did that come from Anchorman or I Love You, Man? Source Monitoring Error (Source Amnesia) � When a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source “I read that in my Psychology textbook!” • (When you really heard it on Dr. Phil…) Songwriters?

Memory: Reconstruction �Types of Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia � Involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia Anterograde Amnesia � Involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia The Case of H. M. (Henry Molasion)