Introductory phrases Adverbial clauses Nominal clauses Relative clauses

Introductory phrases beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses You have no issues in punctuating the beginning of a sentence when you begin directly with its subject, as I did this one. However, as with this one, when a sentence forces a reader to plough through several introductory words, phrases, and clauses, especially when they have their own internal punctuation and readers might be confused by it all (as you may be right now), you can forget trying to punctuate it right: revise it.

Introductory phrases beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses You have no issues in punctuating the beginning of a sentence when you begin directly with its subject, as I did this one. However, as with this one, when a sentence forces a reader to plough through several introductory words, phrases, and clauses, especially when they have their own internal punctuation and readers might be confused by it all (as you may be right now), you can forget trying to punctuate it right: revise it. EXPLANATION If you need to use an expression that comes before the independent clause, use a comma.

Introductory phrases beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses EXAMPLES Therefore, I plan to quit smoking. Nervously, I threw away my cigarettes. As a result, I feel terrible right now. After 16 years of smoking, it is not easy to quit. Having smoked for 16 years, I find it diffucult to quit. relative clauses

Adverbial clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverbial. It can tell when, where, why, how long, how far, how often, and for what purpose. Adverbial clauses are introduced by: because, whenever, while, as soon as, after, since, as, before, until, wherever, as if, so that, although, even though, if, unless, etc.

Adverbial clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses When an adverbial clause comes first in a sentence, put a comma after it. When an adverbial clause follows an independent clause, do not separate the clauses with a comma. Because she was late every day, she lost her job. Independent clause Adverbial clause She lost her job because she was late every day. Independent clause Adverbial clause EXPLANATION Adverbial clauses function as adverbials, so they should appear after the independent sentence (to follow the traditional word order: subject – verb – object – adverbials). If they appear at the beginning, use a comma because they break the traditional word order (the same way as introductory phrases).

Adverbial clauses beginnings EXAMPLES adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses NOTICE: “So that” introduces an adverbial clause, and it is not introduced with a comma; “so” introduces an independent clause, and it is separated with a comma. Farmers use chemical pesticides so that they can fet higher crop yields. Although I had studied all night, I failed the test. If you study, you will get good grades. Whenever I had to speak in front of people, I was paralyzed by fear. The men hunted game while the women gathered plants.

Nominal clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses A nominal clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun. It is often part of an independent clause, where it can be a subject or an object. subject What the newspaper reported was incorrect. object People once believed that the world was flat. EXPLANATION: Never use a comma to separate a nominal clause from the independent clause.

Nominal clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses EXAMPLES I am sure that the address is correct. It is certain that Earth is getting warmer. The class was surprised that the instructor canceled the final exam. Do you know who the interpreter for the Russian leader was? The students want to know if the test is easy. Police do not know who committed the robbery.

Relative clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses A relative clause is a dependent cluase that functions as an adjective. That is, it gives more information about a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses are introduced by: who, whom, which, that, whose, where. Everyone who studied for the exam passed it easily. Mayor Pyle, whom I voted for, lost the election.

Relative clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses Defining relative clauses are necessary to identify its antecedent for the reader. Do not use commas with defining clauses. Which professor won a Nobel Prize two years ago? The clause who teaches my biology class is necessary to identify the professor. The professor who teaches my biology class won a Nobel Prize two years ago. He won the Prize for research that might lead to a cure for AIDS. For which research did he win the prize? We need the clause that might lead to a cure for AIDS to tell us.

Relative clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses are not necessary to indentify its antecedent; they merely give the reader some extra information about it. Because you can omit a non-defining relative clause without loss of meaning, separate if from the rest of the sentence with commas. The person who won a Nobel Prize is identified by his name, so the clause who teaches my biology class is extra, unnecessary information about Professor Jones. If it were omitted, we would still know which person won the Nobel Prize. Professor Jones, who teaches my biology class, won a Nobel Prize two years ago. He won the prize for his research into the structure of Tcells, which might lead to a cure for AIDS. We already know which research he won the prize for: his research into the structure of T-cells. The information which might lead to a cure for AIDS is not necessary to identify the research; I merely gives us extra information about it.

Relative clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses EXAMPLES OF DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Families whose incomes are below a certain level pay no income tax. She loaned her car to someone whom she did not know. I studied algerba with a professor whose name I have forgotten. The subject that I enjoyed the most is algebra. The class that meets in the next room is very noisy. Note: “That” is only used in defining relative clauses. It cannot be used in non-defining relative clauses.

Relative clauses beginnings adverbial clauses nominal clauses relative clauses EXAMPLES OF NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES Apple Computer, whose Macintosh computer changed computing, was started by two men working in a garage. Her husband teaches algebra, which I enjoy the most. On November 9, 1989, when the wall was torn down, their lives changed again. The Saudi Arabian city of Mecca, where Mohammed was born, is the holiest city in Islam. I did not work last week, when I had my final exams.

EXERCISES INSERT COMMAS IF NECESSARY 1. Most people shop where they get the lowest prices. 2. In order that consumers can enjoy unblemished fruits and vegetables farmers spray the fields with chemicals. 3. He thinks that further research will prove that eating richly spiced foods can have longterm effects. 4. Since many Europeans live, work, and shop in the same locale they are quite accustomed to riding bicycles, trains, and streetcars to get around. 5. Kuwait which is a small country in the Middle East is in first place.

EXERCISES INSERT COMMAS IF NECESSARY 6. Before people in the US moved to cities they grew most of their own food. 7. It was a thrilling experience to meet the author of the book that we had been reading all semester. 8. Whether the professor will reschedule the exam is uncertain. 9. The sun which in 40 minutes can produce enough solar energy to meet humankind’s needs for a year is one of Earth’s potential sources of power. 10. Experts agree that neither sex is more intelligent than the other.

EXERCISES INSERT COMMAS IF NECESSARY 11. I enrolled in a speech class because I need to make speeches for career advancement. 12. She does not know when he arrived. 13. A medical computer is a machine that analyzes the results of laboratory tests and electrocardiograms. 14. The bus’s engine sounds as if it is going to collapse at any moment. 15. It is necessary that each salesperson work longer hours.

REFERENCES Oshima, Alice: Writing Acedemic English Williams, Joseph M. : Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace Mc. Carthy, Carter: Cambridge Grammar of English