Introduction to Psychology Memory Memory is the set

Introduction to Psychology Memory

Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time

Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval • Encoding inputs information into the memory system • Storage is the retention of the encoded information • Retrieval is getting the information out of memory and back into awareness

Three Types of Encoding • Acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music • Semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning • Visual encoding: input of images • Recoding: taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it

Three Stages of Storage Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.

Components of Long-term Memory

Retrieval • Recall: accessing information without cues • Recognition: identifying previously learned information after • • encountering it again, usually in response to a cue Encoding specificity principle: the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace. Relearning: learning information that was previously learned

Memory in the Brain The amygdala is involved in emotional memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks

Memory Problems: Amnesia • Amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma • • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

Why We Forget

Memory Errors Sin Type Description Example Transience Forgettin g Accessibility of memory decreases over time Forget events that occurred long ago Absentmindednes s Forgettin g Forgetting caused by lapses in attention Forget where your phone is Blocking Forgettin g Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked Tip of the tongue Misattribution Distortion Source of memory is confused Recalling a dream memory as a waking memory Suggestibility Distortion False memories Result from leading questions Bias Distortion Memories distorted by current belief system Align memories to current beliefs Persistence Intrusion Inability to forget undesirable memories Traumatic events

Forgetting: Interference Forgetting may be caused by failure to retrieve information This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive

Why is Eyewitness Testimony Unreliable? • Suggestibility: Effects of misinformation from external sources lead to • the creation of false memories Misinformation effect: Given incorrect information, witnesses may misremember the original event

Memory Enhancing Strategies Techniques to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory include: • Rehearsal • Chunking • Elaborative rehearsal • Mnemonic device

How to Study • Use elaborative rehearsal • Apply the self-reference effect • Don’t forget the forgetting curve • Rehearse, rehearse • Be aware of interference • Keep moving • Get enough sleep • Make use of mnemonic devices

Practice Problem Use a memory enhancing strategy presented in this section to remember the different types of amnesia and the different types of interference

Quick Review • Explain the three types of encoding • Describe three stages of memory storage • Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and semantic and episodic memory • Explain retrieval cues and define recall, recognition, and relearning • Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory

More Quick Review • Compare and contrast anterograde and • • retrograde amnesia Explain encoding failure and give examples of common memory errors Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony Explain the misinformation effect Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies, including mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and pegwords