Chapter 5 Data Encoding Review Information Numeric Data

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Chapter 5 Data Encoding

Chapter 5 Data Encoding

Review Information: Numeric Data, characters, voice, pictures, codes or any massage that can be

Review Information: Numeric Data, characters, voice, pictures, codes or any massage that can be read by and has meaning to human and machine.

Review • For transmission: – Information must be converted into binary first. • ASCII

Review • For transmission: – Information must be converted into binary first. • ASCII table • Unicode – Information must be encoded into electromagnetic signals. (Analog or digital)

Review • Digital Signal: – A digital signal is a sequence of discrete discontinuous

Review • Digital Signal: – A digital signal is a sequence of discrete discontinuous voltage pulses. • Each pulse is a signal element • In its simplest form each signal element represents a binary 0 or 1.

Data Encoding Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either analog or

Data Encoding Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either analog or digital. (Function of media and communication ) • Digital data, digital signal • Digital data, analog signal • Analog data, digital signal • Analog data, analog signal

Terminology (digital signal) • Unipolar encoding: If the signal elements all have the same

Terminology (digital signal) • Unipolar encoding: If the signal elements all have the same algebraic signs, all positive or all negative, the signal is called unipolar. • Polar encoding: One logical state is represented by positive voltage and the other by the negative voltage level.

Terminology (digital signal) • Data rate: The rate in bits per second that the

Terminology (digital signal) • Data rate: The rate in bits per second that the data is transmitted. (R) • Bit duration: The amount of time for one bit transmission (1/R) • Modulation rate: The rate at which the signal level is changed. (baud rate, signal levels per second)

Terminology • Encoding scheme: The mapping from data bits to signal elements • Spectrum:

Terminology • Encoding scheme: The mapping from data bits to signal elements • Spectrum: The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains. • Absolute bandwidth: The width of the spectrum • Effective bandwidth: The are of the bandwidth where most of the energy of the signal is concentrated.

Terminology • DC (direct current)component: A component of a signal with the frequency of

Terminology • DC (direct current)component: A component of a signal with the frequency of zero. • Example – S(t)=1+(4/ )sin(2 ft) + ….

Evaluation of Various Encoding Techniques (affecting factors) • Signal spectrum: – Lack of high

Evaluation of Various Encoding Techniques (affecting factors) • Signal spectrum: – Lack of high frequency components means less bandwidth required for transmission – DC component: It is desirable to have no DC component. (easier implementation) • Clocking: The beginning and end of each bit position must be determined. – Providing separate clocking information. – Implementation of some other ways of synchronization

Evaluation of Various Encoding Techniques (affecting factors) • Error detection: – To detect errors

Evaluation of Various Encoding Techniques (affecting factors) • Error detection: – To detect errors more quickly, some error detection techniques must be built into signaling encoding methods. • Signal interference and noise immunity: – Some signal encoding techniques provide better error rate (BER) than others • Cost and complexity

Data Encoding Digital data, analog signal • A modem converts digital data to analog

Data Encoding Digital data, analog signal • A modem converts digital data to analog data – Amplitude –shift keying (ASK) – Frequency –shift keying (FSK) – Phase –shift keying (PSK)

Data Encoding Analog data, Digital signals • Pulse code modulation (PCM) – Samples analog

Data Encoding Analog data, Digital signals • Pulse code modulation (PCM) – Samples analog data periodically – Quantizing (limiting the possible values to discrete set of values) the samples

Data Encoding Digital data, digital signal • Simplest form of digital encoding – Two

Data Encoding Digital data, digital signal • Simplest form of digital encoding – Two voltage level required – It can be enhanced to improve performance.

Digital–to-Digital Encoding Schemes • Unipolar – Uses only one level of voltage (almost obsolete)

Digital–to-Digital Encoding Schemes • Unipolar – Uses only one level of voltage (almost obsolete) • Polar – Uses two level of voltage • Bipolar – Uses theree level of voltage

Unipolar Encoding • Presence and absence of a voltage level is used for two

Unipolar Encoding • Presence and absence of a voltage level is used for two binary digits. • The absence of voltage could represent zero. • A constant positive voltage could represent 1.

Unipolar Amplitude 0 1 0 0 0 Time

Unipolar Amplitude 0 1 0 0 0 Time

Unipolar Encoding Issues • Synchronization: A major issue: – Example: For a bit rate

Unipolar Encoding Issues • Synchronization: A major issue: – Example: For a bit rate of 1000 bps, the receiving device must measure each bit for 0. 005 s. • DC Component: • The average amplitude of a unipolar encoded signal is not zero. – This creates a DC component ( a component with zero frequency). – DC component can not travel through some media that can not handle DC component

Polar Encoding Polar encoding uses tow voltage levels (positive and negative)

Polar Encoding Polar encoding uses tow voltage levels (positive and negative)

Polar NRZ-L RZ NRZ-I Biphase Manchester Differential Manchester

Polar NRZ-L RZ NRZ-I Biphase Manchester Differential Manchester

Variation of Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) NRZ-L, Nonreturn to Zero-level (polar) • The level

Variation of Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) NRZ-L, Nonreturn to Zero-level (polar) • The level of the signal depends on the type of the bit it represents (a positive voltage usually represents bit 0 and negative voltage represents the bit 1 (or vice versa) – The problem exist when receiver needs to interpret long streams of 1 or zero. Or NRZ-I (Nonreturn to Zero Invert on ones)

Nonreturn to Zero-Level Amplitude 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Time 0

Nonreturn to Zero-Level Amplitude 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Time 0

Variation of Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) NRZ-I (Nonreturn to Zero Invert on ones) •

Variation of Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ) NRZ-I (Nonreturn to Zero Invert on ones) • An inversion of voltage level represents a 1 bit. • The transition between a positive and negative voltage represents a 1 not the voltage level itself. • A 0 is represented by no change • Still a string of zeros is a problem.

Nonreturn to Zero, invert on ones Amplitude 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Nonreturn to Zero, invert on ones Amplitude 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Time

Nonreturn to Zero-Level Nonreturn to Zero, invert on ones Amplitude 0 1 0 0

Nonreturn to Zero-Level Nonreturn to Zero, invert on ones Amplitude 0 1 0 0 1 1 Time 0 1 1 1 0

Return to Zero • One solution to synchronization issue of NRZ-L and NRZ-I is

Return to Zero • One solution to synchronization issue of NRZ-L and NRZ-I is using RZ (Return to Zero) encoding schemes. – It uses three values: positive, negative and zero. – In RZ, the signal changes during each bit. – A 1 bit is represented by positive-to zero and a 0 bit by negative-to-zero.

Return to Zero It requires two signal changes to encode one bit. (uses more

Return to Zero It requires two signal changes to encode one bit. (uses more bandwidth) 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 Time These transitions can be used for synchronization

NRZ pros and cons • Pros – Easy to engineer – Make good use

NRZ pros and cons • Pros – Easy to engineer – Make good use of bandwidth • Cons – dc component – Lack of synchronization capability • Used for magnetic recording • Not often used for signal transmission

Polar NRZ-L RZ NRZ-I Biphase Manchester Differential Manchester

Polar NRZ-L RZ NRZ-I Biphase Manchester Differential Manchester

Biphase Encoding • The most popular encoding to deal with the synchronization problem. •

Biphase Encoding • The most popular encoding to deal with the synchronization problem. • The signal changes at the middle of the bit interval and continues to the opposite pole (dose not return to zero). • Types of biphase encoding: – Manchester – Differential Manchester

Biphase Encoding • Manchester Encoding: – The inversion at the middle of each bit

Biphase Encoding • Manchester Encoding: – The inversion at the middle of each bit is used for both synchronization and bit representation • i. e. Transition serves as clock and data – Low to high represents one – High to low represents zero – Used by IEEE 802. 3

Manchester Encoding

Manchester Encoding

Differential Encoding • Data represented by changes rather than levels • More reliable detection

Differential Encoding • Data represented by changes rather than levels • More reliable detection of transition rather than level • In complex transmission layouts it is easy to lose sense of polarity

Biphase Encoding • Differential Manchester: – Transition at the middle of bit interval is

Biphase Encoding • Differential Manchester: – Transition at the middle of bit interval is used for clocking only. – Transition at the start of a bit period represents zero. – No transition at start of a bit period represents one. – Note: this is a differential encoding scheme – Used by IEEE 802. 5.

Differential Manchester Encoding Presence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval represents

Differential Manchester Encoding Presence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval represents zero. Absence of transition at the beginning of the bit interval represents one.

Biphase Pros and Cons • Con – At least one transition per bit time

Biphase Pros and Cons • Con – At least one transition per bit time and possibly two – Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ – Requires more bandwidth • Pros – Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking) – No dc component – Error detection • Absence of expected transition

Multilevel Binary Use more than two levels • Bipolar-AMI (Alternate mark inversion) • Pseudoternary

Multilevel Binary Use more than two levels • Bipolar-AMI (Alternate mark inversion) • Pseudoternary (variation of Bipolar. AMI)

Bipolar Encoding • Uses there voltage levels – Positive, negative, and zero • Zero

Bipolar Encoding • Uses there voltage levels – Positive, negative, and zero • Zero level represents binary 0 • One’s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages

Types of Bipolar Encoding • Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) – Bipolar 8 -zero

Types of Bipolar Encoding • Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) – Bipolar 8 -zero substitution (B 8 ZS) – High density bipolar 3 (HDB 3)

Types of Bipolar Encoding

Types of Bipolar Encoding

Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) • • • Mark comes from telegraphy (meaning 1)

Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) • • • Mark comes from telegraphy (meaning 1) Zero voltage represents zero Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages

Bipolar Alternate mark inversion (AMI)

Bipolar Alternate mark inversion (AMI)

Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

Bipolar-AMI and Pseudoternary

Types of Bipolar Encoding • Pros: – – DC component is zero A long

Types of Bipolar Encoding • Pros: – – DC component is zero A long sequence of 1’s is always synchronized. Lower bandwidth Easy error detection • Cons – No mechanism for synchronization of long string of zeros

Variation of AMI • • Bipolar 8 -zero substitution (B 8 ZS) (implemented in

Variation of AMI • • Bipolar 8 -zero substitution (B 8 ZS) (implemented in US) High Density bipolar 3 (HDB 3) (implemented in Europe) – In both methods the original pattern is modified in the case of multiple consecutive zeros.

Bipolar 8 -zero substitution (B 8 ZS) • It works similar to BMI •

Bipolar 8 -zero substitution (B 8 ZS) • It works similar to BMI • Whenever 8 or more consecutive zeros occurs, signal level is forced to change.

Pseudoternary • One represented by absence of line signal • Zero represented by alternating

Pseudoternary • One represented by absence of line signal • Zero represented by alternating positive and negative • No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI

Trade Off for Multilevel Binary • Not as efficient as NRZ – Each signal

Trade Off for Multilevel Binary • Not as efficient as NRZ – Each signal element only represents one bit – In a 3 level system could represent log 23 = 1. 58 bits – Receiver must distinguish between three levels (+A, -A, 0) – Requires approx. 3 d. B more signal power for same probability of bit error

Scrambling • Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage • Filling

Scrambling • Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage • Filling sequence – – Must produce enough transitions to sync Must be recognized by receiver and replace with original – Same length as original • • No dc component No long sequences of zero level line signal No reduction in data rate Error detection capability

B 8 ZS • Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution • Based on bipolar-AMI •

B 8 ZS • Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution • Based on bipolar-AMI • If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was positive encode as 000+-0 -+ • If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse preceding was negative encode as 000 -+0+ • Causes two violations of AMI code • Unlikely to occur as a result of noise • Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all zeros

HDB 3 • • • High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros Based on bipolar-AMI String

HDB 3 • • • High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros Based on bipolar-AMI String of four zeros replaced with one or two pulses

B 8 ZS and HDB 3

B 8 ZS and HDB 3

Digital Data, Analog Signal • Public telephone system – 300 Hz to 3400 Hz

Digital Data, Analog Signal • Public telephone system – 300 Hz to 3400 Hz – Use modem (modulator-demodulator) • • • Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PK)

Digital to Analog Encoding

Digital to Analog Encoding

Amplitude Shift Keying • Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier • Usually, one

Amplitude Shift Keying • Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier • Usually, one amplitude is zero – i. e. presence and absence of carrier is used • • Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient Up to 1200 bps on voice grade lines Used over optical fiber

Modulation Techniques (ASK) Binary 1 Binary 0

Modulation Techniques (ASK) Binary 1 Binary 0

ASK

ASK

Modulation Techniques(ASK)

Modulation Techniques(ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying • Values represented by different frequencies (near carrier) • Less susceptible

Frequency Shift Keying • Values represented by different frequencies (near carrier) • Less susceptible to error than ASK • Up to 1200 bps on voice grade lines • High frequency radio • Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

Modulation Techniques (ASK) Binary 1 Binary 0 f 1 and f 2 are offset

Modulation Techniques (ASK) Binary 1 Binary 0 f 1 and f 2 are offset from fc by equal but opposite amount

FSK on Voice Grade Line

FSK on Voice Grade Line

FSK

FSK

Modulation Techniques(FSK)

Modulation Techniques(FSK)

Phase Shift Keying • Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data •

Phase Shift Keying • Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data • Differential PSK – Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal

Modulation Techniques (PSK) (Differential PSK) Binary 1 Binary 0 The phase shift is is

Modulation Techniques (PSK) (Differential PSK) Binary 1 Binary 0 The phase shift is is in reference to previous bit transmitted Rather than to some constant reference signal.

PSK

PSK

PSK Constellation

PSK Constellation

Quadrature PSK • More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one

Quadrature PSK • More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one bit – e. g. shifts of /2 (90 o) – Each element represents two bits – Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one amplitude – 9600 bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have two amplitudes

Modulation Techniques (PSK) (Differential QPSK) Binary 11 Binary 10 Binary 01

Modulation Techniques (PSK) (Differential QPSK) Binary 11 Binary 10 Binary 01

4 -PSK

4 -PSK

4 -PSK Constellation

4 -PSK Constellation

8 -QAM Signal

8 -QAM Signal

8 -PSK Constellation

8 -PSK Constellation

Have a great day. See you on Friday.

Have a great day. See you on Friday.

PSK Bandwidth

PSK Bandwidth

4 -QAM and 8 -QAM Constellation

4 -QAM and 8 -QAM Constellation

Bandwidth for ASK

Bandwidth for ASK

Bandwidth for FSK

Bandwidth for FSK

16 -QAM Constellation

16 -QAM Constellation

Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Bit Rate and Baud Rate

Modulation Techniques(FSK)

Modulation Techniques(FSK)

Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes • Bandwidth – ASK and PSK bandwidth

Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes • Bandwidth – ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit rate – FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower frequencies, but to offset of modulated frequency from carrier at high frequencies – (See Stallings for math) • In the presence of noise, bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3 d. B superior to ASK and FSK

Analog Data, Digital Signal • Digitization – – – – Conversion of analog data

Analog Data, Digital Signal • Digitization – – – – Conversion of analog data into digital data Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L Digital data can then be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L Digital data can then be converted to analog signal Analog to digital conversion done using a codec Pulse code modulation Delta modulation

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1) • If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1) • If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal – (Proof - Stallings appendix 4 A) • • • Voice data limited to below 4000 Hz Require 8000 sample per second Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM) • Each sample assigned digital value

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2) • 4 bit system gives 16 levels • Quantized –

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2) • 4 bit system gives 16 levels • Quantized – Quantizing error or noise – Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly • • • 8 bit sample gives 256 levels Quality comparable with analog transmission 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64 kbps

Nonlinear Encoding • • • Quantization levels not evenly spaced Reduces overall signal distortion

Nonlinear Encoding • • • Quantization levels not evenly spaced Reduces overall signal distortion Can also be done by companding

Delta Modulation • Analog input is approximated by a staircase function • Move up

Delta Modulation • Analog input is approximated by a staircase function • Move up or down one level ( ) at each sample interval • Binary behavior – Function moves up or down at each sample interval

Delta Modulation - example

Delta Modulation - example

Delta Modulation - Operation

Delta Modulation - Operation

Delta Modulation - Performance • Good voice reproduction – PCM - 128 levels (7

Delta Modulation - Performance • Good voice reproduction – PCM - 128 levels (7 bit) – Voice bandwidth 4 khz – Should be 8000 x 7 = 56 kbps for PCM • Data compression can improve on this – e. g. Interframe coding techniques for video

Analog Data, Analog Signals • Why modulate analog signals? – Higher frequency can give

Analog Data, Analog Signals • Why modulate analog signals? – Higher frequency can give more efficient transmission – Permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8) • Types of modulation – Amplitude – Frequency – Phase

Analog Modulation

Analog Modulation

Spread Spectrum • • • Analog or digital data Analog signal Spread data over

Spread Spectrum • • • Analog or digital data Analog signal Spread data over wide bandwidth Makes jamming and interception harder Frequency hoping – Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies • Direct Sequence – Each bit is represented by multiple bits in transmitted signal – Chipping code

Required Reading • Stallings chapter 5

Required Reading • Stallings chapter 5

Review

Review

Atmospheric and Extraterrestrial Noise –Lightning: It is a major source of noise, caused by

Atmospheric and Extraterrestrial Noise –Lightning: It is a major source of noise, caused by the static discharge of thunderclouds. • Several million volts • Currents exceeding 20, 000 amps. –Solar Noise: Ionized gases of the sun produces a wide range of frequencies that penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere. –Cosmic Noise Radiation of noise by distant stars penetrating the Earth’s atmosphere. Long haul telecommunications service (1500 km support 20, 000 to 60, 000 voice channels) • An alternative to fiber optic and coaxial cable • Short point-to-point links between buildings (closed-circuit TV or data link)