Study Area 6 Memory Memory and Its Processes

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Study Area 6 Memory

Study Area 6 Memory

Memory and Its Processes • Memory: an active system that receives information from the

Memory and Its Processes • Memory: an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

Models of Memory • Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model: memory processes are proposed to

Models of Memory • Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model: memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections

Models of Memory Levels-of-processing model: assumes that information that is more“deeply processed” or processed

Models of Memory Levels-of-processing model: assumes that information that is more“deeply processed” or processed according to its meaning, rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words—will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

Models of Memory Information-processing model: assumes that the processing of information for memory storage

Models of Memory Information-processing model: assumes that the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory - in a series of three stages Precursor: Multi-store model: Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) original model of memory, consisting of the sensory register, short-term store, and long-term store.

Memory and Its Processes • Processes of memory 1. encoding: the set of mental

Memory and Its Processes • Processes of memory 1. encoding: the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems 2. storage: holding onto information for some period of time 3. retrieval: getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used

Three-Stage Process of Memory Information enters through the sensory system, briefly registering in sensory

Three-Stage Process of Memory Information enters through the sensory system, briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective attention filters the information into short-term memory, where it is held while attention (rehearsal) continues. If the information receives enough rehearsal (maintenance or elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long-term memory. Information-processing model encode

Sensory Memory • Sensory memory: the very first stage of memory – the point

Sensory Memory • Sensory memory: the very first stage of memory – the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems – The nervous system has a specific sensory system or organ, dedicated to each sense. Humans have a multitude of senses. Sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch are the five traditionally recognized senses.

Sensory Memory • Iconic memory: visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a

Sensory Memory • Iconic memory: visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second – capacity: everything that can be seen at one time – duration: information that has just entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information (within a second or so), a process called masking • Eidetic imagery: the (rare) ability to access a visual memory for thirty seconds or more

Sensory Memory • Echoic memory: the brief memory of something a person has just

Sensory Memory • Echoic memory: the brief memory of something a person has just heard – capacity: limited to what can be heard at any one moment; smaller than the capacity of iconic memory – duration: lasts longer than iconic; about two to four seconds fyi: The sensory memory for touch stimuli is sometimes known as the haptic memory. Smell and taste memories are not named.

Short-Term Memory • Short-term memory (STM; working Short-term memory): the memory system in which

Short-Term Memory • Short-term memory (STM; working Short-term memory): the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used – selective attention: the ability to focus on only selective attention one stimulus from among all sensory input

Short-Term (working) Memory • Digit-span test: a series of numbers is read to subjects

Short-Term (working) Memory • Digit-span test: a series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in order – conclusion: capacity of STM is about seven items or pieces of information, plus or minus two items—or from five to nine bits of information. – “magical number” = 7 Traditional theory! – Note: New research indicates as few as one item at a time

Digit-Span Test Instructions for the digit-span test: Listen carefully as the instructor reads each

Digit-Span Test Instructions for the digit-span test: Listen carefully as the instructor reads each string of numbers out loud. As soon as each string is ended (the instructor may say “go”), write down the numbers in the exact order in which they were given.

Short-Term (working)Memory • Chunking: bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks,

Short-Term (working)Memory • Chunking: bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM • Maintenance rehearsal: saying bits of information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs tend to be encoded in auditory form)

Short-Term (working)Memory • STM lasts from about twelve to thirty seconds without rehearsal •

Short-Term (working)Memory • STM lasts from about twelve to thirty seconds without rehearsal • STM is susceptible to interference – e. g. , if counting is interrupted, one will have to start over

Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM): the memory system into which all the information is

Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM): the memory system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

Long-Term Memory • Elaborative rehearsal: a method of transferring information from STM into LTM

Long-Term Memory • Elaborative rehearsal: a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.

Types of LTM • Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: type of long-term memory including memory for

Types of LTM • Nondeclarative (implicit) memory: type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses – Procedural memories are not conscious, but their existence is implied because they affect conscious behavior – also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious awareness

Nondeclarative (Implicit) LTM Procedural memory (often called implicit memory): memory that is not easily

Nondeclarative (Implicit) LTM Procedural memory (often called implicit memory): memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness

LTM • Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma

LTM • Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, forward or the inability to form new long-term memories – usually does NOT affect procedural LTM

Types of LTM Declarative (explicit) memory: type of long-term memory containing information that is

Types of LTM Declarative (explicit) memory: type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known. a memory for facts Semantic: Of or relating to meaning or the study of meaning

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • All the things that people know • Semantic memory: declarative

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • All the things that people know • Semantic memory: declarative memory containing general knowledge – knowledge of language, information learned in formal education • Episodic memory: declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others – daily activities and events

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • Semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory -

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • Semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory - memory that is consciously known.

Types of Long-Term Memories Long-term memory can be divided into declarative memories, which are

Types of Long-Term Memories Long-term memory can be divided into declarative memories, which are factual and typically conscious (explicit) memories, and Nondeclarative memories, which are skills, habits, and conditioned responses that are typically unconscious (implicit). Declarative memories are further divided into episodic memories (personal experiences) and semantic memories (general knowledge).

Organization of Memory • LTM is organized in terms of related meanings and concepts

Organization of Memory • LTM is organized in terms of related meanings and concepts • Semantic network model: assumes that information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion – concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than to unrelated concepts A semantic network, or frame network, is a network that represents semantic relations between concepts. This is often used as a form of knowledge representation. It is a directed or undirected graph consisting of vertices, which represent concepts, and edges, which represent semantic relations between concepts.

An Example of a Semantic Network In the semantic network model of memory, concepts

An Example of a Semantic Network In the semantic network model of memory, concepts that are related in meaning are thought to be stored physically near each other in the brain. In this example, canary and ostrich are stored near the concept node for “bird, ” whereas shark and salmon are stored near “fish. ” But the fact that a canary is yellow is stored directly with that concept.

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • Semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory -

Declarative (Explicit) LTM • Semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory - memory that is consciously known.

Cues to Help You Remember • Retrieval cue: stimulus for remembering • Priming can

Cues to Help You Remember • Retrieval cue: stimulus for remembering • Priming can occur where experience with information or concepts can improve later performance • Priming is a nonconscious (implicit) form of human memory concerned with perceptual identification of words and objects. It refers to activating particular representations or associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task. For example, a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana. " This happens because yellow and banana are closely associated in memory

Cues to Help You Remember Encoding specificity: tendency for memory of information to be

Cues to Help You Remember Encoding specificity: tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (e. g. , surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory was first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved Encoding Specificity is state-dependent learning: memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological (affective /emotional ) state will be easier to recall while in a similar state.

Recall • Recall: memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be

Recall • Recall: memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues • Retrieval failure: recall has failed (at least temporarily) – tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon

Recall • Serial position effect: information at the beginning and the end of a

Recall • Serial position effect: information at the beginning and the end of a body of information more accurately remembered than the information in the middle – primacy effect: tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than what follows – recency effect: tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information ahead of it

Serial Position Effect In the serial position effect, information at the beginning of a

Serial Position Effect In the serial position effect, information at the beginning of a list will be recalled at a higher rate than information in the middle of the list (primacy effect), because the beginning information receives more rehearsal and may enter LTM. Information at the end of a list is also retrieved at a higher rate (recency effect), because the end of the list is still in STM, with no information coming after it to interfere with retrieval.

Recognition • Recognition: ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to

Recognition • Recognition: ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact • False positive: error of recognition in which people think that they recognize a stimulus that is not actually in memory

Eyewitness Testimony • What people see and hear about an event after the fact

Eyewitness Testimony • What people see and hear about an event after the fact can easily affect the accuracy of their memories of that event – eyewitness testimony is not always reliable! not – research into this area has found that eyewitness testimony can be affected by many psychological factors: – – Anxiety / Stress Reconstructive Memory Weapon Focus Leading Questions (Loftus and Palmer, 1974)

Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb Memories • Automatic encoding: tendency of certain kinds of information

Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb Memories • Automatic encoding: tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding • Flashbulb memories: automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it

How LTMs Are Formed • Constructive processing: memory retrieval process in which memories are

How LTMs Are Formed • Constructive processing: memory retrieval process in which memories are “built, ” or reconstructed, from information stored during encoding – with each retrieval, memories may be altered, revised, or influenced by newer information

How LTMs Are Formed • Hindsight bias: the tendency to falsely believe, through revision

How LTMs Are Formed • Hindsight bias: the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event – “Monday morning quarterbacking”

Memory Retrieval Problems Misinformation effect: tendency of misleading information presented after an event to

Memory Retrieval Problems Misinformation effect: tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

Reliability of Memory Retrieval • False memory syndrome: creation of inaccurate or false memories

Reliability of Memory Retrieval • False memory syndrome: creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis • Evidence suggests that false memories cannot be created for just any kind of memory – memories must at least be plausible.

Forgetting: Ebbinghaus • Curve of forgetting: a graph showing a distinct pattern in which

Forgetting: Ebbinghaus • Curve of forgetting: a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually – distributed practice: spacing one’s study sessions § produces better retrieval – massed practice: studying a complete body of information all at once

Curve of Forgetting Ebbinghaus found that his recall of words from his memorized word

Curve of Forgetting Ebbinghaus found that his recall of words from his memorized word lists was greatest immediately after learning the list but rapidly decreased within the first hour. After the first hour, forgetting leveled off.

Forgetting: Encoding Failure • Encoding failure: failure to process information into memory Stop! Many

Forgetting: Encoding Failure • Encoding failure: failure to process information into memory Stop! Many people look at stop signs multiple times a day. Which of these stop signs is closest to an actual stop sign? (The answer can be found in the notes section of this slide. )

Forgetting: Memory Trace Theory • Memory trace: physical change in the brain that occurs

Forgetting: Memory Trace Theory • Memory trace: physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed – decay: loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used – disuse: another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear – memories recalled after many years are not explained by memory trace theory

Forgetting: Interference Theory • Proactive interference: memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information

Forgetting: Interference Theory • Proactive interference: memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information • Retroactive interference: memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information

Proactive and Retroactive Interference If a student were to study for a French exam

Proactive and Retroactive Interference If a student were to study for a French exam and then a Spanish exam, interference could occur in two directions. When taking the Spanish exam, the French information studied first may proactively interfere with the learning of the new Spanish information. But when taking the French exam, the more recently studied Spanish information may retroactively interfere with the retrieval of the French information.

Formation of LTMs • Consolidation: changes that take place in the structure and functioning

Formation of LTMs • Consolidation: changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed – long-term potentiation: changes in number and sensitivity of receptor sites/synapses through repeated stimulation • Hippocampus: area of brain responsible for the formation of LTMs

Amnesia • Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of some injury or

Amnesia • Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past • Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories – “senile dementia” (Senile dementia' is a outdated term that used to be used when it was thought that memory loss and confusion was a normal part of ageing, rather than being caused by specific diseases like Alzheimer's. These days, it is more common to refer to dementia, or early-onset dementia if the person is under 65. )

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among

Alzheimer’s Disease • Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among older people. Dementia is a brain disorder that seriously affects a person's ability to carry out daily activities. • AD begins slowly. It first involves the parts of the brain that control thought, memory and language. People with AD may have trouble remembering things that happened recently or names of people they know. • In AD, over time, symptoms get worse. People may not recognize family members. They may have trouble speaking, reading or writing. They may forget how to brush their teeth or comb their hair. Later on, they may become anxious or aggressive, or wander away from home. Eventually, they need total care. This can cause great stress for family members who must care for them. • AD usually begins after age 60. The risk goes up as you get older. Your risk is also higher if a family member has had the disease.

Alzheimer’s Disease • 5. 3 million cases in U. S. • Primary memory difficulty

Alzheimer’s Disease • 5. 3 million cases in U. S. • Primary memory difficulty in Alzheimer’s is anterograde amnesia – retrograde amnesia can also occur as the disease progresses • There are various drugs in use or in development for use in slowing or stopping the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, but no cure.

Alzheimer’s Disease • Risk factors include – high cholesterol – high blood pressure –

Alzheimer’s Disease • Risk factors include – high cholesterol – high blood pressure – smoking – obesity – Type II diabetes – lack of exercise

Amnesia Infantile amnesia: the inability to retrieve memories from much before age three

Amnesia Infantile amnesia: the inability to retrieve memories from much before age three

Amnesia Autobiographical memory: the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life

Amnesia Autobiographical memory: the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story (usually after age three)

Health and Memory • Sleep is important in forming memories – memories rehearsed during

Health and Memory • Sleep is important in forming memories – memories rehearsed during sleep as well as during waking are more likely to be consolidated – one can’t learn something new while sleeping, but new information can be better consolidated while sleeping – sleep deprivation severely interferes with hippocampal function and memory • Even brief exercise can be good for your memory • Fish is brain food? – omega-3 fatty acid called DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) appears to help memory cells communicate

Study Area 6 Memory The End

Study Area 6 Memory The End