9 Domains of Development 1 PhysicalMaturational 2 CognitiveIntellectual

9 Domains of Development 1. Physical-Maturational 2. Cognitive-Intellectual 3. Artistic-Creative 4. Linguistic-Communicative 5. Knowledge-Skill 6. Social-Interpersonal 7. Moral-Ethical 8. Personality-Individuality 9. Emotional-Affective Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Theorists Connected with Each of the 9 Domains of Development 1. Physical-Maturational (Gesell) 2. Cognitive-Intellectual (Piaget, Damon) 3. Social-Interpersonal (Youniss, Selman, Damon) 4. Moral-Ethical (Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan, Hoffman, Damon) 5. Knowledge-Skill (Vygotsky, Damon) 6. Linguistic (Chomsky) 7. Artistic-Creative (Lowenfeld, Gardner) 8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby, Ainsworth) 9. Emotional-Affective (Hoffman, Kagan) Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Descriptors of These Theorists’ Models 1. Psychosexual Personality Development (Freud) 2. Psychosocial Personality Development (Erikson) 3. Developmental Tasks as Developmental Milestones (Havighurst) 4. Cognitive Development (Piaget) 5. Moral Reasoning Development (Kohlberg, Piaget, Havighurst) 6. Moral Emotion Development (Hoffman, Kagan) 7. Social-Conceptual Development (Damon, Selman, Youniss) 8. Scaffolded Knowledge and Skill Development (Vygotsky, Damon) 9. Ecological-Social Development (Bronfenbrenner) 10. Maturational-Biological Milestones (Gesell) 11. Ethological Personality-by-Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth) Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Some Developmental Mechanisms • Maturation (genetic program for growth) • Imitation (essential for learning) • Practice (essential for consolidation) • Habituation (promotes novel exploration) Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Three issues addressed by developmental theorists • Continuity or Discontinuity of Growth Can development be characterized as a gradual change process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of change? • The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience Is development primarily influenced by biologically inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental experiences (nature or nurture)? • Individual Differences What makes individuals different? To what extent are individual characteristics stable over time? Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

ADULTHOOD INFANCY CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS Some theories view development as a relatively continuous process. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is discontinuous and involves periodic qualitative milestone changes. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Age Range Birth to nearly 2 years of age About 2 to 6 years of age About 7 to 11 years of age About 12 years of age through adulthood Developmental Phenomena Description of Stage Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through the senses and exploration (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, etc. ) • Object permanence • Stranger anxiety Preoperational • • • Representing things with words and images but have no logical reasoning abilities Concrete operational Pretend play Egocentrism Rapid language development Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing math operations • Conservation • Mathematical transformations Formal operational • Abstract logic • Potential for moral reasoning Abstract reasoning; reflection; thinking about thinking Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

The child begins to interact with the environment The child begins to represent the world symbolically. Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Formal Operational Children learn rules such as game rules and the law of conservation, and they take them very seriously The adolescent can transcend concrete situations and think about the future and their own thinking Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Sensorimotor Pre. Operational Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence; begin to explore environment Early symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, concentration, & egocentrism; assume you know what they know; cannot decenter Birth to 2 Years 2 to 7 Years Concrete Operational Formal Operational Mental operations are applied to concrete events only; mastery of conservation and hierarchical classification; cannot think abstractly Mental operations are applied to abstract ideas; begin logical, systematic thinking; imagine hypothetical events; manipulate symbols in their minds 7 to 11 Years 12 to adult Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four stages marked by qualitatively different modes of thinking. Interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development Types of Games and Play Game Rule Practice and Consciousness Basic Morality Is Respect for Rules Pre-Cooperative Parallel Cooperative Immature Mature Cooperative A casual attitude toward Rules are viewed as sacred, Rules are viewed as a Cooperative Egocentric game rules; few rules obligatory, product of mutual are understood; games unchangeable; game rules consent; game rules are ignored are vaguely understood codified and of intense interest Heteronomy: morality of constraint; imposed Autonomy: morality of cooperation; cooperation constraints maintain egocentrism; constraints and reciprocity emerge from relationships among are a necessary precondition for the peer equals that deliver them from egocentrism to development of moral autonomy and a mature sense of justice Sense of Justice is what is commanded by authority: Heteronomy Born of solidarity & mutual respect among equals Consider intentions & situation when judging Thinking Capacity Pre-Operational Concrete Operational Formal Operational Take the perspective of others; conceptual but not abstract reasoning Can think logically and abstractly; can consider many viewpoints Can't take the perspective of others; can't think about their own thinking Equalitarianism Equity Concept of Responsibility Objective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of material consequences; evaluations based on observable factors Subjective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of motives/intentions; acts judged immoral if they violate norm of reciprocity central to moral rules Morality of Good Affection between parent and child yields morality of good; develops along side the morality of justice No further explanation Moral Affect Feeling of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperation Feeling of obligation to follow rules of respected and respect among equals (reflects valuing of reciprocity); "moral sentiments and motivation" to do right reflect the authority; raw material for future autonomous subordination of early "sympathetic tendencies" and "affective moral behavior is present in sympathetic reactions" to rules; "will" is the permanent set of constructed tendencies and affective reactions "values" to which one adheres Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Robert Havighurst’s “Developmental Task Theory” Click Here He also introduced the concepts of “teachable moment, ” “authoritarian conscience, ” and “rational conscience, ” concepts similar to those of Piaget. The idea of "developmental tasks" is appropriately credited to Robert Havighurst who stated that the concept was developed in the 1930 s and 40 s by Frank, Zachry, Prescott, and Tyron. He further stated, “The developmental-task concept occupies a middle ground between two opposing theories of education: theory of freedom — that the child will develop best if left as free as possible; and theory of constraint — that the child must learn to become a worthy, responsible adult through restraints imposed by his society [inculcation]. A developmental task is midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes an active learner interacting with an active social environment. ” Tasks for three of the developmental stages are presented on the next three slides. Drawn from the description of Havighurst’s book in Developmental Advising: Annotated Bibliography for Research Published Prior to 1999, an annotated bibliography compiled by G. Steele and Melinda Mc. Donald for the NACADA Journal. Retrieved from http: //www. nacada. ksu. edu/Journal/developmental. htm The book is Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David Mc. Cay. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood: Ages 6 -12 1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; 2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism; 3. Learning to get along with age-mates; 4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role; 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating; 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living; 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values; 8. Achieving personal independence; 9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David Mc. Cay. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Ages 12 -18 1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes; 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role; 3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively; 4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults; 5. Preparing for marriage and family life; 6. Preparing for an economic career; 7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology; 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David Mc. Cay. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood 1. Selecting a mate; 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role; 3. Learning to live with a marriage partner; 4. Starting a family; 5. Rearing children; 6. Managing a home; 7. Getting started in an occupation; 8. Taking on civic responsibility; 9. Finding a congenial social group. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David Mc. Cay . Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Early Language Development 16 of 25 consonant sounds by 30 months See cat! Telegraphic means lacking connection words Grpmph ! Cat! said with gestures; serves as whole sentence Gradual narrowing of sounds to meaningful phonemes of the language being learned 9 -12 months is the quiet period since there is a decrease in vocalization

Epigenetic principle: genetically determined unfolding of maturation; HOW we turn out is a function of social/environmental forces and experience in interaction with genotype. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility. New. York: Norton. To learn more about Erikson, begin here: http: //elvers. stjoe. udayton. edu/history/people/Erikson. html Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt Is my world Predictable and Supportive? Can I do things myself or must I depend on others? Infancy Babies Toddlerhood Initiative versus Guilt Am I Good or am I Bad? Early Childhood Industry versus Inferiority Identity versus Role Confusion Am I Competent or am I a worthless failure? Who am I and where am I going? Late Childhood Adolescence Intimacy versus Isolation Shall I share my life with another or live alone? Young Adulthood Generativity versus Absorption Integrity versus Despair Will I produce something of real value or leave a legacy? Have I lived a full life and taken advantage of what life offered? Middle Age Late Adult Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively. Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where am I going? ” The stages are described above in terms of personality traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004

Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises (Stages) of Personality Formation Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004 © Developmental Stages and Age Ranges Psychosocial Oral-Sensory Birth to 12 -18 Months Muscular-Anal 18 Months to 3 Years of Age Trust vs Mistrust Crisis or Conflict Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt Significant Relations Important Healthful Events Virtues Hope Faith Problematic Traits Sensory Distortion Withdrawal Impulsivity Compulsivity Self -Doubt Mother Feeding Parents Toilet Training Purpose Courage Imagining Cruelty Inhibition Fear of Failure Will Independence Locomotion 3 to 6 Years of Age Initiative vs Guilt Family Exploration Doing Things Latency 6 to 12 Years of Age Industry vs Inferiority Neighbor & School Children School Making Things Well Competence Skill, Pride Conscience Inferiority Lack of Self. Confidence Adolescence 12 to 18 Years of Age Identity vs Role Confusion Peer Cliques Girl/Boy Friend Role Models Consolidation of Roles Identifications Fidelity Loyalty Fanaticism Repudiation Young Adult 19 to 29 Years of Age Intimacy vs Isolation Friends & Life Partners Committed Middle Age 30 to 55 Years of Age Generativity vs Self-Absorption Household Members & Work Mates Supporting Next Generation Old Age 56 to 100 Years of Age Integrity vs Despair Mankind or “My-kind” Physical Decline Death Love Trust Relationships Caring Altruism Wisdom Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 Promiscuity Exclusivity Over- Extension Rejecting Presumption Despair

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued Early Attachment • Erikson proposes that our first major conflict is encountered in the first year Trust vs. Mistrust • Infants develop trust through Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory) Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued • In the second year of development the child encounters the conflict of. . . Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt • The child explores the environment and seeks the independence to do so. • Parents who stifle their children during this stage cause feelings of shame and doubt. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued • In the third year of development, the child faces the conflict of. . . Initiative vs. Guilt • The child starts to show initiative in play and control over emotions. • The child also begins to gain a sense of what is right and wrong based on their experiences. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued • From ages 6 through 12, the child faces the conflict over Industry vs Inferiority • Industrious children build a sense of competence and self-confidence. • Non-industrious children begin to develop inferiority complexes. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition) • Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors via relationships. • Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people, usually parents and teachers. • The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they may be close to having the necessary mental skills, they need guidance in order to complete the tasks. • Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to children’s needs. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Vygotsky’s Theory of Development • Zone of Proximal Development encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but within their capacity to learn with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children. • Scaffolding involves changing the level of support over the course of teaching something — the more skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of guidance to fit students’ current performance level. • Language and Thought: young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this “inner speech” or private speech. Primary Source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Another source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1989). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. To learn more, begin with Clifford Morris’s information at http: //www. igs. net/~cmorris/zpd. html entitled Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development 1. . Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

It is important to study human development in it’s broader social-environmental context because the structure of the environment influences development. Ecological Theories of Human Development Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory 5 Environmental Systems: microsystem: setting where individual lives mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems comprising the local community exosystem: experiences in the larger social system or society of which the microsystem and mesosystem are parts macrosystem: the individual’s culture chronosystem: environmental events and transitions over time One PPT source retrieved at http: //www. ualberta. ca/~liame/106 b 1/notes 7. ppt#20 – no author identified. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Changes in systems over time CHRONOSYSTEM MACROSYSTEM urc Commerce and Industry Dominant Beliefs and Ideologies Ch tio a rt s Workplace o p em s t d n a ys rhoo o r b gh T n S Neighborhood at t In ern te s rc of ha S ng oc e ial e rs ou s C on ife ti L Op C W n om ork Te m p ch un lac no ica e lo tio gy Church P Home h Peer School Group INDIVIDUAL Cultural Norms MICROSYSTEM G Pee ro r up SOCIETY AT LARGE Government Agencies L if Ch e St oi yle Educational ce s s S System ub cu ltu re s Home S ch oo l MESOSYSTEM p St por ru tu ct nit Ma ur ie Me ss es s dia l ga Le tem s Sy Traditions l Re EXOSYSTEM on igi O Where the individual lives Interrelations among microsystems CULTURE Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

BIOLOGICALMATURATIONAL THEORIES Amniotic Sac Frontal Lobes Egg Placenta Sperm Cells Umbilical Cord Eye Liver Prenatal Development Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Biological-Maturational Theories of Development Emphasize the genetic, biological, and evolutionary basis of human development. � � The central concept is maturation — a genetically predetermined sequence of physical and psychophysiological changes. These changes take place at about the same age for most people. � The environment has a significant influence on when changes occur and the degree Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Affection for children Affection for adults Elation Joy Delight Excitement Distress Anger Jealousy Disgust Fear Months 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement (K. M. B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability. K. M. B. Bridges, (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 37. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Temperament • • The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive, arousal, and self-regulatory components of personality. These are evident in infancy in the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability, etc. In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2 -3 months of age. They identified tree types of temperament evident in infancy: • Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood (mild to moderate intensity); quick adaptability; • Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent negative mood of high intensity; slow adaptability; • Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses ( mild to moderate intensity); slow adaptability. Thomas, A. , & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel • In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for temperament: Inherited, present early in development, predictive of later personality development.

Maturation does not take place in a vacuum. There are critical periods during which children must have certain types of experiences in order for perceptual and cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus confirming the “use it or lose it” saying. For example, in order to develop correct binocular depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input between age one and three years. A child who was kept in confinement by her parents until the age of thirteen without being spoken to never acquired spoken language beyond two or three word phrases. Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development • • • The mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways: Severely inadequate nutrition – Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems – Increased risk of mental disorders later in life Drug use – Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly (small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor abnormalities, abnormal facial features. – The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social skills. – Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked to birth defects. Viral Illnesses – Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness, and (c) the medications taken. – Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause extreme abnormalities or death. Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels. Primary sources: Gurnee, Mary C. and Sylvestri, Mario F. (2005). Teratogenicity of Drugs, accessed at U. S. Pharmacist, a Johnson Publication at http: //www. uspharmacist. com/oldformat. asp? url=newlook/files/Feat/ACF 3001. cfm&pub_id=8&article_id=134; The Ohio State University Medical Center (2005). Risks during pregnancy, a public service document accessed at http: //medicalcenter. osu. edu/patientcare/healthinformation/diseasesandconditions/maternity/care/risks. cfm

Attachment Theory Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby • Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to respond to it’s caregiver. • Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors promote close proximity to the caregiver so that the child can be protected from danger. • Type of attachment is influenced by caregiving behavior; children can be categorized as: – Secure – Ambivalent (seek comfort but show anger or resistance) – Avoidant – Insecure-disorganized Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from http: //www. public. iastate. edu/~hd_fs. 511/lecture/Types_of_Attachment. ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Researching Attachment: Strange Situation Test The infant is put through eight standardized The Strange Situation Test involves separating episodes or situations, all meant to elicit the very young child (toddler) from differing levels of distress. These include its mother or primary caregiver an experimentering the room, one or and then reuniting the both leaving, and a stranger entering either child with the with or without the parent. in the room. Based on the infant’s reaction to these situations, his or her type of attachment with the mother or is identified. From Messer, D. and Miller, S. (1999). Exploring Developmental Psychology. Copy of photo found at http: //ibs. derby. ac. uk/~steve/devpsy/powerpoint/lec 7 social. ppt#7 This is carried out under controlled and monitored conditions and involves carefully recording the child’s reactions and the parent’s behavior. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth who extended the earlier groundbreaking work of John Bowlby. Ainsworth, M. D. S. , Blehar, M. , Waters, E. , & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Infant reunion responses following their separation from their mothers: • Secure (B type) behavior – positive, greeting of mother, being comforted • Avoidant (A type) behavior – not seeking contact, avoiding gaze • Ambivalent (C type) behavior – not comforted, overly passive, show anger • Disorganised (D type) Behavior – totally disorganised and confused Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to be inconsistent, insensitive, and unpredictable in their interactions with their babies. The mothers of insecure-avoidant babies tend to be averse to physical contact, are inclined to interfere unnecessarily, and generally appear emotionally unavailable or dismissive. The mothers of insecure-disorganized infants are typically suffering from an unresolved trauma, such as abuse or the unresolved loss of an attachment figure, which results in their babies being afraid of them. The mother may actually be abusive or neglectful. Click to Learn More Source: Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1982). Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In C. M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, (Eds. ) The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior. (pp 3 -30) New York: Basic Books. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

Correspondence Between Child & Adult Attachment Styles CHILD ATTACHMENT STYLE PARENT ATTACHMENT STYLE SECURE: Limited distress, continued exploration after initial reunion SECURE/AUTONOMOUS: developmentally appropriate interaction; recognizes significance of attachment. AVOIDANT: child appears indifferent DISMISSING: dismissive about attachment; withdrawn and rejecting RESISTANT OR AMBIVALENT: child appears distressed and is preoccupied with caregiver and clingish PREOCCUPIED: recognizes significance of attachment but is preoccupied with past and appears angry; blurred or unclear boundaries DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: difficult to categorize reunion with caregiver; describes 80% of maltreated children. UNRESOLVED/DISORGANIZED: frightened by memory of past; trauma promotes momentary disassociation; scripts child into past dramas Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from http: //www. public. iastate. edu/~hd_fs. 511/lecture/Types of_Attachment. ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Ambivalent 10% 22% Avoidant Unclassified 5% 63% Secure In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bowlby’s Attachment Stages • Birth to 2 -3 months – Undiscriminating social responsivenss • 2 -3 months to 6 -7 months – Discriminating social responsiveness • 6 -7 months to 3 years – Active proximity seeking /true attachment • 3 years and older – Goal-corrected partnership Sources: Bowlby, John. (1982). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. NY: Basic Books; list presented in this slide also listed in slide #5 created at the University of Idaho, retrieved at http: //www. class. uidaho. edu/psych/faculty/Tammy's%20305%20 Notes/socialrelationships. ppt#5. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Percentage of infants who cried when their mothers left Separation Distress: Another Indicator of Attachment 100 0 0. 0 80 Day-care 60 40 Home 20 3. 5 5. 5 7. 5 9. 5 11. 5 13. 5 15. 5 Age in months Groups of infants who had and had not experienced daycare were left by their mothers in an unfamiliar room. 17. 5 19. 5 21. 5 23. 5 25. 5 29 Gordon Vessels’ 2005 recreation of graph in a PPT show by Mahnaz Rehmatullah at http: //www. uta. edu/psychology/faculty/mahnaz/classnotes/1315/Ch 04_Developing%20 Person. ppt#34 ed. He took it from Kagan, Jerome (1976), The role of the family during the first half decade. In V. Vaughn& T. Brazelton (Eds. ), The family: Can it be saved? Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.

Attachment Theory Research Findings • Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to secure attachment. Main, M. , & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1 -month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415 -426. • Lamb et al. , (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable. Lamb, M. E. , Thompson, R. A. , Gardner, W. P. , Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, 127 -171. • • Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem solvers than insecurely attached infants. Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs. Crandell, L. E. and Hobson, R. P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 455 -464(10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing • Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their activities with friends more harmoniously than others. Park, K. A. , & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, 1076 -1081. • Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63 -76 • Sroufe et al. , (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that 10 -11 year old children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes. ” Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to manage at home and school (e. g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc. ). Sroufe, L. A. , Egeland, B. , & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood. Child Development, 61, 1363 -1373. Sroufe, L. A. , Egeland, B. , & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships. In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds. ) Relationships as developmental context: The 29 th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. • Fonagy et al. , (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children were more competent on various mental tasks. Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 51 -61. Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Ainsworth’s Attachment Classifications versus Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Profile Percent of Infants Attachment Classification Percent of One Year Olds Easy 60% Secure 63% Difficult 15% Resistant 8% Slow to Warm Up 23% Avoidant 29% Data drawn from a similar chart created by faculty at the University of Western Ontario for undergraduate students taking course 240 B. No specific faculty author is listed. Retrieved at http: //www. ssc. uwo. ca/psychology/undergraduate/psych 240 b-2/lectureslides/attachment_final. ppt#79

Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind • Authoritarian – – – Child is told, “Do it because I said so!” A punitive and highly controlling parenting style Only concerned about obedience • Authoritative – – – Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication and high expectations for moral maturity Are less likely to use physical punishment Involve children in decisions and rule-making • Permissive – – Loose and inconsistent structure Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel comfortable making. Source: Grobman, K. H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http: //www. devpsy. org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles. html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, 43 -88. Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Baumrind Parent-Child Relationships Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of parenting: • Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish their children. • Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on punishment. • Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair discipline and much communication about moral maturity Source: Grobman, K. H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http: //www. devpsy. org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles. html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75 , 43 -88. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

What parenting style is best? Outcomes associated with different styles – Authoritarian • Lack of social competence • Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights • Most social contact confined to deviant peers • Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality – Authoritative • Greater self-reliance and self-confidence • More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others – Permissive • Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective Limitations of research – Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white, middle class children and adolescents) – Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles. Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels in 2005. His Sources: Grobman, K. H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from http: //www. devpsy. org/teaching/parent/baumrind_styles. html. Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75 , 43 -88.

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION of PARENTING STYLES Accepting Nurturing Responsive Demanding Controlling Not Demanding Not Controlling Rejecting Unresponsive Emotionally Aloof Authoritative Authoritarian Diana Baumrind Rejecting Overly Strict Indulgent Neglectful Accepting Permissive Rejecting Permissive Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Development of “Prosocial” Behavior • Pro-social behavior is the aspect of moral conduct that includes socially desirable behaviors such as sharing, helping, and cooperating. • Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies cry when they hear the crying of other babies but not when they hear taperecorded crying ─ suggests at least a primitive level of global empathy • Martin Hoffman traced the development of empathy through four stages. Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed. ), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed. ) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Development of empathy • Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy. • Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following: – emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy) – during the second year, babies actively attempt to comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms • has been shown in reactions to staged events such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle. – preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings and can empathize with people they have not met including story characters they can only imagine and people they learn about through the media. – between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to empathize with people based on their knowledge of troublesome social-environmental conditions such as being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative. Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed. ), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed. ) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

The Development of Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlberg Explained how children and teens develop a sense of right and wrong (an ethic of justice) – Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather than behavior or moral emotion – Examined the nature and progression of moral reasoning or judgment through several stages. – He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning: • Preconventional – Punishment orientation (stage 1) – Reward orientation (stage 2) • Conventional – Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3) – Respect for authority orientation (stage 4) • Postconventional – Social contract orientation (stage 5) – Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6) Kohlberg, Lawrence (Ed. ) (1983). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

KOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY View of "Right" That Which Gains Approval From Others Primary Levels Punishment Pre-Conventional (self-serving) Avoiding Pleasure/ Reward Seeking Acceptance/ Conventional (other- serving) That Which Adheres to Rules or Principles Motivation Post. Conventional (principleserving) Approval Seeking Rule Following/ Status Seeking Law Abiding/ Rights Respecting Justice Seeking/ Conscience Driven Developed by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 © Perspective Age/Grade Egocentric Preschool Early Childhood Individualistic Grades K-2 Middle Childhood Interpersonal Grades 3 -5 Late Childhood Organizational Grades 6 -8 Early Adolescence Societal Grades 9 -12 Late Adolescence Universal Adulthood

Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas about fairness (positive justice), and how they thought rewards and resources should be divided-up or distributed. A sample story: A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some children drew well; others did not. Some children were wellbehaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the students who painted pictures? Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W. W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon • In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel, Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon found that ideas of fairness develop through a sequence of levels: – Under age 4, children simply state their desires and give no reason for their choice. – Four and five year old kids state their desires but justify their choices on the basis of external factors (e. g. ¨we should get more because we are girls, or. . . we are bigger¨) Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W. W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon • Five to seven year old children believe that equality is the only fair way to divvy up valued rewards, and they will argue their point. – No mitigating circumstances for them • For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and need enter into children’s moral reasoning. – They start to take into account all the factors involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in each situations — a case by case decision. Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W. W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Reasoning and Actual Behavior • How does the thinking of young children about fairness correspond to their behavior in the real world? • Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old children were asked to divide candy bars given to their group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets. – Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each person should get the same number of candy bars. – Older children were better able to adjust the outcome to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions made by each group member. • In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their concept level in the simulated situations. • In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level. • In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy made a real difference. Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W. W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Affective Developmentalists Grade Clusters Shown Below Erikson Havighurst Knowles Infants Trust, Openness, Hope Global Empathy Toddlers Autonomy (Independence), Will Affective Empathy Naturally & Non. Selectively Prosocial Preschool Initiative, Imagining, Purpose Guilt for Uncontrolled Aggression Shame & Guilt Dawn of Conscience Early Elementary Conscience Inner Moral Guide Perspective Taking Late Elementary Industry, Competence, Skill or the Cognitive Component of Empathy; Guilt for Irresponsibility Authoritarian Conscience Middle School Identity Formation Anxiety High School (Consolidation of Roles, Identifications, and Personal Characteristics) Hoffman Kagan Hay Havighurst Related to Inconsistency Between Beliefs and Actions (exact point of emergence not clear) Rational Conscience Complete Set of Moral Principles No Information Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Affective Development Havighurst Infants Age 0 -1 Toddlers Age 2 -3 Preschool Early Child hood 4 -5 Early Elementary Middle Childhood Late Elementary Late Childhood Middle School Early Adolescence High School Late Adolescence Erikson Need to become Trusting, open, and no information Hopeful or will be fearful throughout life Need to become Independent, and no information Willful or be selfdoubting Beginning of moral Need to take Initiative responsibility; the and Imagine or may be cruel and critical Dawn of throughout life Conscience Authoritarian Conscience: voice of parent taken in as a moral guide via love & discipline Rational Conscience: through cooperation with peers and an understanding of rules Complete Set of Moral Principles no information Hoffman Kagan Hay Global Empathy Natural discomfort at another's distress Selman / Damon no information Self-Regulatory Empathy non- selective prosocial feelings of concern that limit aggression tendency Moral feeling of guilt presumably extant with uncontrolled aggression Emotions of shame and guilt Can’t distinguish their perspective from that of others; know self in terms of unrelated surface characteristics Move from a need Perspective Taking for initiative to need the cognitive component of empathy combines for Industry, Skill, with affective compoand competence nent that is present at birth; guilt and Need to be Competent or do self-scorn related to things well or they will feel Prosocial behavior becomes more selective and declines Know people have different viewpoints but can take only one at a time and favor their own; understand self in terms of comparisons inferior and be unable to work well with others irresponsibility and over -indulgence are presumably experienced Need to form an Moral emotion of Identity or consolidate Anxiety related to roles, identifications, and inconsistency characteristics or will be between beliefs and insecure, compulsive, or actions presumably even deviant; tend to be emerges sometime clannish and preoccupied after late childhood with how they are or during adolescence perceived by peers. Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 © no information no information no information Better understanding of different viewpoints and know they can have more than one plus mixed feelings; self the same Step outside situation and see as complex; have thirdparty view of self, others, and relationships; know self in terms of effects on others Understand self in terms of personal philosophy & plan for the future

Juxtaposition of Relevant Developmental Theories (part 2 is on the next slide) Preschool Early Childhood Kindergarten Pre-Kindergarten Early Elementary Middle Childhood First and Second Grades Late Elementary Late Childhood Grades Three Through Five Middle School Early Adolescence Grades Six Through Eight High School Late Adolescence Grades Nine Through Twelve Piaget on Cognitive Development Piaget on Moral Development Kohlberg on Moral Development (Preconventional 1) ● They can’t decenter or take the perspective of others but are imitative. ● They can sense and perceive but not symbolically manipulate. ● They cannot comprehend classes and subclasses. ● They cannot relate to adult s’ abstract reasoning. ● They can’t reflect on or think about their own thinking. ● They assume you know what they know. ● They are subject to the morality of constraint. ● They exhibit social play but do not try to win. ● Justice is viewed as that commanded by authority. ● Casual attitude about rules. ● Authority maintains egocentrism. ● Egocentrism a step between the solitary play of younger children and the social play of children six and older. ● They display heteronomous or adultdependent morality. ● They think in absolutes of right and wrong. ● They have an egocentric viewpoint. ● They are good to avoid punishment or gain rewards. ● They view the value of life the way they do the value of objects. Concrete Operations ● They display instrumental cooperation. ● They are largely subject to the morality of constraint. ● They want to win by age seven but have a vague notion of game rules. ● They view rules as sacred and unchangeable. ● They view justice as that which is commanded by authority. ● They see right as that which satisfies their needs. ● They have a concrete, pleasure/ rewardseeking, individualistic perspective. ● Their cooperation is instrumental, and they exchange favors to satisfy needs. ● The value of life is viewed as instrumental to need satisfaction. ● They are in transition between heteronomy and moral autonomy. ● They come to know codified game rules and show an intense interest in them. ● They continue to view rules as unchangeable. ● They view justice in terms of equality that comes about from solidarity and mutual respect. ● They view right as what gains approval. ● They have an interpersonal, Golden Rule, good-child/bad-child perspective. ● They gain approval by being caring and accommodating toward significant others. ● They view the value of life in terms of affectional bonds. ● They move from perceptual or pre operational to conceptual or concreteoperational thought, i. e. , they begin to solve problems in their heads because they can manipulate objects symbolically. ● They cannot imagine events that are not real events, need real things to think about, and cannot think abstractly. ● They can take the perspective of others. ● They are becoming more and more interested in their peers. ● They willfully engage in social cooperation. Formal Operations ● They move from concrete operational to formal-operational thought, think logically and abstractly, and begin to manipulate symbols in their heads. They can imagine hypothetical as well as real events. ● They can introspect, reflect, and think about their own thinking. ● They can consider many view-points and take the perspective of others fully. ● They are much more self-conscious than they were previously. ● They have principled moral autonomy, morality emerging from cooperation. ● Their rule mastery and codification of game rules, that began at about age ten, continues. ● They view justice as equity, not equality. ● Rules are viewed as a changeable product of mutual consent. (Preconventional 2) (Conventional 3) (Conventional 4) ● They view right as doing one's duty, showing respect to authority, and main taining social order. ● They have an organizational-need, societal-need, law-maintaining view. ● They view life as sacred within the context of a scheme or moral rights. (Post-conventional) unexplained Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 © ● They view right as guarding basic rights and legal contracts, or as meeting mutual obligations in context of societal rights and standards. ● They have a law-creating, moral-legal view that obligates them to honor social commitments. ● Principled moral reasoning.

Selman & Youniss on Friendship Development Damon on Moral Development (Level 1) ● 0 -A: (4 years old): They make no attempt to justify choices and feel they should get more because they want more. They distort adult orders to fit their wishes. ● 0 -B: (5 years old): They justify choices in a selfish, after-the-fact way and view authority only as a block to satisfying their own desires. ● Children have an egocentric under- standing of friendship that involves sharing toys and enjoyable activities with incidental playmates. They are becoming more selective and selfish with their prosocial behavior. They can’t distinguish between their own perspective and that of others. (Level 1) ● Friendship is defined by uneven-handed reciprocity that derives from a subjective, unilateral, or one-way social perspective. Friends begin to realize that feelings and intentions and not just actions keep them together. They know others have a different perspective but can focus only on one. (Level 2) ● Friendship is defined by two-way, cooperative, even-handed reciprocity. Fair- weather friendships may not withstand conflicts. They can self reflect and realizethat people have an outer and inner self. They realize that people have varying viewpoints and are awareof their own mixed feelings. (Level 3) ● Friendship is defined by mutual and exclusive trust, loyalty, and intimacy that involves sharing inner-most feelings with a trusted few. It is built on the ability to take a third-party view of self, others, and relationships, i. e. , they can step outside a social situation and view its complexities. (Egalitarianism) (Havighurst/Hoffman) ● They internalize adult standards and the voice of parent(s) as a result of love and empathy-mediating inductions that connect actions with felt affects. (Equity/Benevolence) ● 2 -A: They view fairness as a right of all, and they view leaders with knowledge as more legitimate. ● 2 -B: They view justice (by age 10) as context dependent and can make reasoned decisions based on claims and conditions, but their perspective is limited to the situation. (Erikson) ● They must gain a sense of competenc e and will feel inferior and have relationship problems if they fail. (Hoffman) ● Feel guilty for violating internalized abstract moral rules and can take the perspective of others. (General) (Havighurst/Hoffman) ● They begin to form a complete set of moral principles that they use to judge self and others. Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 © (part 1 is on previous slide) Preschool Early Childhood Kindergarten Pre-Kindergarten Early Elementary Middle Childhood First and Second Grades (Havighurst) ● A rational conscience replaces the authoritarian conscience via peer-group identification, peer cooperation, and an understanding of the function of rules. ● Self-understanding is based on social and personality traits rather than the abilities of childhood or the beliefs of late adolescence. ● Will gain ability to view situations that involve disparate claims to justice from a wider perspective than the situation and can apply moral principles. ● Self understanding or self-concept is based on beliefs, philosophies, and thoughts rather than personality qualities as was the case in early adolescence. Juxtaposition of Relevant Developmental Theories (Erikson/Hoffman) ● They must take initiative and will experience much guilt and fail to realize their potential if they fail. ● They are at the “dawn of conscience” but have not internalized adult standards. ● They have affectively empathetic feelings that limit aggression and enable social and moral growth. ● 1 -A: They view fairness as equality. Authority is confused with the power to enforce. ● 1 -B: They view fairness in terms of merit and reciprocal obligation. Fairness takes on value in its own right. Children see obedience as legitimate trade for adult favors and help. (Level 4) ● Friendship is defined by autonomous inter dependence whereby friends are close and intimate yet grant eachother the independence to establish other close friendships. Words, glances, and gestures can have deeper shared meanings that are unknown to others. Erikson, Hoffman, & Havighurst on Moral-Affective Development (Erikson) ● They seek to consolidate their roles and identifications into an identity. ● They tend to over-identify with individuals and groups and tend to be clannish and intolerant. ● They are driven by a concern for how they are perceived by their peers. ● The resolution of this crisis allows for growth in terms of moral development and the capacity for sexual intimacy. ● Failure can be due to unresolved earlier crises or the failure to commit to an ideology and way of life. Late Elementary Late Childhood Grades Three Through Five Middle School Early Adolescence Grades Six Through Eight High School Late Adolescence Grades Nine Through Twelve

Friendship / Self / Perspective Taking Selman Youniss Children's Friendship Stories 3 -6 6 6 -8 8 8 -10 10 10 -13 13 13 -18 18 18 -25 6 year old children tell stories about sharing toys and play activities no stories gathered 10 year old children tell stories about playing and sharing play activities 13 year old children tell stories about assisting each other Friends Are. . . Friendship Is. . . those who live nearby; those with whom they are playing; those whose toys they want Damon Perspective Taking Ability cannot distinguish their own perspective from that of others recognize others may have different viewpoints but can consider only one at a time and favor their own; a one-way social perspective have a better understanding more cooperative, evenof peoples’ different viewhanded reciprocity; fairpoints and know they can weather friendships don't have more than one or mixed withstand conflict feelings; two-way perspective can step outside a situation mutual understanding and view its complexities exclusive trust replaces and have a third-party reciprocal interest; friendperspective on self, others, ships withstand conflicts and relationships subjectivity and unevenhanded reciprocity; know feelings, not just activities, keep them together autonomous interdependence: close and intimate 18 year old adolescents friends grant each other the right to have other friends tell stories about sharing private thoughts and feelings self-concept and view of self understand self in terms of unrelated surface characteristics understand self in terms of comparisons with others, particularly peers same as above understand self in terms of effects on others of personal characteristics understand others in terms of personal philosophy and plans for the future Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©