Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Josef

Chapter 1 Thinking Critically With Psychological Science Josef F. Steufer/Getty Images

Chapter Overview • The History and Scope of Psychology • Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble 1 -1: HOW DO THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE’S THREE MAIN COMPONENTS RELATE TO CRITICAL THINKING? • Curiosity • Skepticism • Humility Let’s take a closer look at each of these.

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Curiosity – Includes a passion to explore and understand the world without misleading or being misled – Let the facts speak for themselves by using an empirical approach – Questions to consider • What do you mean? • How do you know?

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Curious Skepticism – Supports questions about behavior and mental processes: What do you mean? How do you know? THE AMAZING RANDI: Magician and skeptic James Randi has tested and debunked a variety of psychic phenomena.

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Humility – Involves awareness of our own vulnerability to error and willingness to be surprised – Openness to new perspectives – One of psychology’s early mottos: “The rat is always right. ”

The Scientific Attitude: Curious, Skeptical, and Humble Critical Thinking – Critical thinking refers to careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge by • Examining assumptions • Appraising source(s) of information • Discerning hidden biases • Evaluating evidence, and • Assessing conclusions – Critical thinking in psychology has led to surprising findings, debunked popular presumptions, and resulted in more effective policies.

Critical Thinking Determining if flaw in information collection exists Discarding personal assumptions and biases and view the evidence Looking for hidden bias, politics, values, or personal connections CRITICAL THINKING: Analyzing, rather than simply accepting, information Considering alternative explanations for facts or results Searching for hidden assumptions and deciding if you agree

Psychology’s Roots 1 -2: WHAT WERE SOME IMPORTANT MILESTONES IN PSYCHOLOGY’S EARLY DEVELOPMENT? – Fourth century B. C. E. : Aristotle theorized about • Learning and memory • Motivation and emotion • Perception and personality – He didn’t have our knowledge, but he asked the right questions.

Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Laboratory Wilhelm Wundt • Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany • Seeked to measure “atoms of the mind” • Added two key elements to enhance scientific nature of psychology • Elements included carefully measured observations and experiments

Psychological Science Is Born: Psychology’s First Schools of Thought Edward Bradford Titchener • Relied on “self-report” data • Encouraged introspection, reporting on sensations and other elements of experience in reaction to stimuli • Used these introspective reports to build a view of the mind’s structure. This early school of thought was called structuralism.

Functionalism: William James • Studied human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and asked: • What function might they serve? • How might they have helped our ancestors survive? • This functionalist school of thought was influenced by Charles Darwin

Psychology’s First Women Mary Whiton Calkins • Became memory researcher and first APA female president • Studied with James but was discriminated against and denied Ph. D

Psychology’s First Women Margaret Floy Washburn • Became second APA female president • Wrote The Animal Mind • Studied with Titchener but barred from his experimental psychology organization

Psychological Science Develops: Behaviorism 1 -3: HOW DID PSYCHOLOGY CONTINUE TO DEVELOP FROM THE 1920 s THROUGH TODAY? Behaviorism – Defined psychology as “scientific study of observable behavior” without reference to mental processes – Became major force in psychology into 1960 s – John B. Watson (classical conditioning) and B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning) dismissed introspection – Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduced famous “Little Albert” experiments

Psychological Science Develops: Freudian Psychology – Emphasized ways unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect later behavior – Freudian psychology was second major force until 1960 s

Psychological Science Develops: Humanistic Psychology – Humanistic psychology is a historically significant perspective that revived interest in study of mental processes – Focused on ways current environments nurture or limit growth potential and on importance of having need for love and acceptance satisfied – Led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Psychological Science Develops: Modern Definition of Psychology Mental Behavior = processes = Psychology = any action that science of internal, behavior and can be subjective mental observed or experience processes recorded inferred from behavior

Contemporary Psychology 1 -4: HOW HAS OUR UNDERSTANDING OF BIOLOGY AND EXPERIENCE, CULTURE AND GENDER, AND HUMAN FLOURISHING SHAPED CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGY? § Psychology’s pioneers have come from many fields: physiology, philosophy, medicine, and biology. § Like the pioneers, today’s psychologists are citizens of many lands; psychology has spread rapidly with 82 member nations in the International Union of Psychological Science. § Psychology is growing and globalizing.

Contemporary Psychology: The Cognitive Revolution – The cognitive revolution began in the 1960 s and focus returned to interest in mental processes. – Cognitive psychology continues to scientifically explore ways in which information is perceived, processed, and remembered, and to study the cognitive roots of psychological disorders. – The interdisciplinary field of cognitive neuroscience ties the science of mind (cognitive psychology) and the science of the brain (neuroscience) and focuses on brain activity underlying mental activity.

Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics The big nature–nurture question is longstanding and continues in psychology. • To what extent are our traits already set in place at birth (our nature)? • And to what extent do our traits develop in response to our environment and experience (our nurture)? • Natural selection: Chance inherited traits aiding survival and reproduction are ones most likely to be passed down.

Contemporary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology and Behavior Genetics Evolutionary Psychology • Plato: Character and intelligence inherited; some ideas inborn • Darwin: Some traits, behaviors, and instincts are part of species • Study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using the principles of natural selection Behavior Genetics • Aristotle: Content of mind comes through senses • Humans differ because of our differing genes and environments • Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Contemporary Psychology: Cross-Cultural and Gender Psychology • Cross-cultural psychology: Focuses on ways culture shapes behavior, but our shared biological heritage also unites us with underlying universal processes. • Gender psychology: Focuses on differences, knowledge of which is beneficial, but again males and females are overwhelmingly similar psychologically as well as biologically.

Contemporary Psychology: Positive Psychology Martin Seligman a key figure: – Psychology’s first hundred years focused on understanding and treating troubles – Positive psychology instead explores human flourishing – Uses scientific methods to investigate building of good life that engages skill-building and a meaningful life that extends beyond self

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis 1 -5: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND RELATED PERSPECTIVES?

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis • Each level of analysis is incomplete by itself • Psychology has varied perspectives, each asking different questions • Perspectives complement one another

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Current Perspectives

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields 1 -6: WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S MAIN SUBFIELDS? – Psychologists united by common quest: describing and explaining behavior and the mind underlying it. – Basic research builds psychology’s knowledge base. – Applied research tackles practical problems. – Range of researchers • Biological psychologists • Developmental psychologists • Cognitive psychologists • Personality psychologists • Social psychologists • Industrial-organizational psychologists

Contemporary Psychology: Psychology’s Subfields – Counseling psychologists help people to cope with challenges and crises. – Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with mental, emotional, behavior disorders. – Psychiatrists, as medical doctors, may prescribe drugs and provide psychotherapy. – Community psychologists work to create social and physical environments healthy for all. – Perspectives range from biological to social, and settings range from laboratory to clinic to office. – Psychologists influence culture and appreciate cultural influences on behavior.

Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions The Need for Psychological Science What About Intuition and Common Sense? 1 -7: HOW DOES OUR EVERYDAY THINKING SOMETIMES LEAD US TO A WRONG CONCLUSION? – Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. – Scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion.

The Need for Psychological Science: Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias – Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it. – Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon. HINDSIGHT BIAS  When drilling the Deepwater Horizon oil well in 2010, oil industry employees took some shortcuts and ignored some warning signs, without intending to harm any people, the environment, or their company’s reputation. After the resulting Gulf oil spill, with the benefit of 20/20 hindsight, the foolishness of those judgments became obvious.

The Need for Psychological Science: Overconfidence – People tend to think they know more than they do. – This occurs in academic and social behavior. WREAT → WATER ETRYN → ENTRY GRABE → BARGE About how many seconds do you think it would take you to unscramble each anagram?

The Need for Psychological Science: Perceiving Order in Random Events • People perceive patterns to make sense of their world. • Even in random, unrelated data people often find order, because random sequences often do not look random. During the 2010 World Cup, a German octopus selected the box with the right national flag, correctly predicting (eight out of eight times) the outcomes of Germany’s matches and Spain’s final win. Random or remarkable?

The Scientific Method: Constructing Theories 1 -8: HOW DO THEORIES ADVANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE? Theory – Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events Hypothesis – Testable prediction, often implied by a theory Operational definition – Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study Replication – Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

The Scientific Method: Constructing Theories

A Good Theory… Effectively organizes Leads to clear predictions Often stimulates research May be replicated

The Scientific Method Testing hypothesis and refining theories using – Descriptive methods – Correlational methods – Experimental methods To think critically, we need to understand these methods and know what conclusions they will allow.

The Scientific Method: Description 1 -9: HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS USE CASE STUDIES, NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS, AND SURVEYS TO OBSERVE AND DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR, AND WHY IS RANDOM SAMPLING IMPORTANT? • Descriptive research is a systematic, objective observation of people (as well as animals). • The goal when studying people is to provide a clear, accurate picture of behaviors, thoughts, and attributes. • Methods used: – Case studies – Naturalistic observations – Surveys and interviews

The Scientific Method: Description The Case Study • Examines one individual or group in depth • Provides fruitful ideas • Cannot be used to generalize Naturalistic Observation • Records behavior in natural environment • Describes but does not explain behavior • Can be revealing The Survey • Many cases in less depth; self -reported • Wording effect • Random sampling • Utilizes random sampling of population for best results

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: TWITTER MESSAGE MOODS, BY TIME AND BY DAY This illustrates how, without knowing anyone’s identity, big data enable researchers to study human behavior on a massive scale.

The Scientific Method: Correlation 1 -10: WHAT ARE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS, AND WHY DO THEY ENABLE PREDICTION BUT NOT CAUSE-EFFECT EXPLANATION? • Correlation: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are “co”-related) • Correlation coefficient: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other

The Scientific Method: Correlation Positive correlation (above 0 to +1. 00) – Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together Negative correlation (below 0 to − 1. 00) – Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. Correlation coefficient – Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other

The Scientific Method: Correlation and Causation • No matter how strong the relationship, correlation does not prove causation. • Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but does not prove it. • Correlations do help us predict, however. An example: Self-esteem correlates negatively with (and therefore predicts) depression.

THREE POSSIBLE CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS People low in self-esteem are more likely to report depression than are those high in self-esteem. One possible explanation of this negative correlation is that a bad selfimage causes depressed feelings. But, as the diagram indicates, other cause-effect relationships are possible.

The Scientific Method: Experimentation 1 -11: WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTATION THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO ISOLATE CAUSE AND EFFECT? – With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by • Manipulating the factors of interest to determine their effects and • Holding constant (controlling) other factors. – They may do so by creating • An experimental group, in which people receive the treatment, • And a contrasting control group, whose members do not receive treatment. • People are randomly assigned.

The Scientific Method: Experimentation • Blind (uninformed) procedure: participants unaware of treatment • Double-blind procedure: participants and administrator unaware of treatment – Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment. – Treatment’s actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect. • Placebo effect: effect involves results caused by expectations alone.

Experimentation: Independent and Dependent Variables Independent variable in an • Factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is experiment being studied Confounding variable in an • Factor other than the independent variable that experiment might produce an effect Dependent variable in an experiment • Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Comparing Research Methods Research Method Descriptive What Is Weaknesses Manipulated Basic Purpose How Conducted To observe and record behavior Do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys Nothing No control of variables; single cases may be misleading Collect data on two or more variables; no manipulation Nothing Cannot specify cause and effect To detect naturally occurring Correlational relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another Sometimes not Manipulate one or feasible; results may The To explore cause more factors; use not generalize to Experimental independent and effect random other contexts; not variable(s) assignment ethical to manipulate certain variables

The Scientific Method: Predicting Real Behavior 1 -12: CAN LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ILLUMINATE EVERYDAY LIFE? Purpose of experiments – Test theoretical principles, not re-create exact everyday life behaviors Resulting principles – Help explain everyday behavior through resulting general principles, not specific findings Psychological science – Focuses on seeking general principles that help explain many behaviors and less on particular behavior

The Scientific Method: Predicting Real Behavior – Controlled, artificial environments are created in laboratory experiments to test general theoretical principles. – These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Psychology’s Research Ethics Protecting Research Participants: 1 -13: WHY DO PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY ANIMALS, AND WHAT ETHICAL GUIDELINES SAFEGUARD HUMAN AND ANIMAL RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS? HOW DO HUMAN VALUES INFLUENCE PSYCHOLOGY? Studying and Protecting Animals • Is it right to place the well-being of humans above that of other animals? – We humans are not like animals; we are animals, sharing a common biology. – Research may benefit both humans and other animals.

Protecting Research Participants: Studying and Protecting Animals • What safeguard should protect animals in research? – 98% of animal researchers support government regulation protecting primates, dogs, and cats – 74% of animal researchers support protection for rats and mice.

Protecting Research Participants: Studying and Protecting Animals Professional associations and funding agency guidelines – Universities: animal care ethics committees; laboratory regulation and inspection – British Psychological Society (BPS): Guidelines for reasonably natural living conditions and companions for social animals – American Psychological Association (APA): Guidelines for humane treatment and minimization of infection, illness, and pain

Protecting Research Participants: Studying and Protecting Humans Ethics codes of APA, Britain’s BPS, and university ethics committee – Obtain potential participants’ informed consent before the experiment – Protect them from harm and discomfort – Keep information about individual participants confidential – Fully debrief people (explain the research afterward) Moreover, university ethics committees screen research proposals and safeguard participants’ well-being.

Psychology’s Research Ethics: Values in Research – Values affect what is studied, how it is studied, and how results are interpreted – Values can color “the facts” – Popular applications of psychology also contain hidden values—self-help guides on how to raise children, how to achieve self-fulfillment, how to get ahead at work contain value-laden advice. – A science of behavior and mental processes can help us reach our goals, but it cannot decide what those goals should be.

Improve Your Retention—and Your Grades 1 -14: HOW CAN PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES HELP YOU LEARN AND REMEMBER? Scientific studies demonstrate a phenomenon called the testing effect: – Testing boosts retention of material – Actively processing material and retrieving material helps master it – SQ 3 R study method is an acronym for five study method steps: • survey, question, read, retrieve, review

SQ 3 R Study Method (Mc. Daniel et al. , 2009; Robinson, 1970) Survey Question Read Retrieve Review Scan/skim what you are about to read, especially outlines and section heads. Try to answer each main section’s numbered Learning Objective questions before reading it. Actively search for answers to questions, reading only as much as you can absorb. Read actively. Recall what you’ve read, in your own words. Test yourself with quizzes. Review what you’ve read, with notes you’ve taken and an eye to the concepts and organization of topics.

Improve Your Retention—and Your Grades Four Additional Tips • Distribute study time by scheduling your time for spaced practice, not massed (cramming) practice. • Learn to think critically by noting people’s assumptions and values, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions. • Process class information actively, actively listening for a lecture’s main ideas and sub-ideas. • Overlearn to improve retention; we tend to overestimate what we think we already know.