Thinking Critically with Psychology Limits of Intuition and

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Thinking Critically with Psychology

Thinking Critically with Psychology

Limits of Intuition and Common Sense • Hindsight Bias – tendency to believe, after

Limits of Intuition and Common Sense • Hindsight Bias – tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it – the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon • Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than we do

-------------- • The tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions

-------------- • The tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas • EX. Astrology • Clever Hans

Critical Thinking-The Scientific Attitude • Critical Thinking – thinking that does not blindly accept

Critical Thinking-The Scientific Attitude • Critical Thinking – thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions – Characterized by • ____________ • Humility

Basic Terminology • Hypothesis – a testable prediction – Expresses a relationship between two_____

Basic Terminology • Hypothesis – a testable prediction – Expresses a relationship between two_____ • “If…then…” – Research never proves a hypothesis is right, rather it either ____or ______a hypothesis

Basic Terminology • Theory – Attempt to explain phenomena (subject of observation) and allows

Basic Terminology • Theory – Attempt to explain phenomena (subject of observation) and allows researchers to generate testable______.

The Scientific Method theories generate or refine research and observations lead to hypothesis

The Scientific Method theories generate or refine research and observations lead to hypothesis

Basic Terminology – _________ a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis –

Basic Terminology – _________ a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis – Specifies how the phenomena in question are to be_____ – Example • intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Basic Terminology • ______ – repeating the essence of a research study to see

Basic Terminology • ______ – repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding _______to other subjects and circumstances – usually with different subjects in different situations

Basic Terminology • ______– Things that can differ or vary among the participants –

Basic Terminology • ______– Things that can differ or vary among the participants – Remember, A hypothesis expresses the relationship between two variables • If A… Then B…

Basic Terminology • ______ Variable – The factor or variable that is being manipulated

Basic Terminology • ______ Variable – The factor or variable that is being manipulated by the experimenter • ____ Variable – The measurable factor that may change as a result of these manipulations • If (IV)…then (DV)…

Basic Terminology • _____– Anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be

Basic Terminology • _____– Anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample • _____ – Individuals on which the research will be conducted; subgroup of the population • _____– Process by which subjects are selected • ______ – The sample selected must be represent the larger population

Basic Terminology • ____ Sample – a sample that fairly represents a population because

Basic Terminology • ____ Sample – a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion • Psychologists use the term random differently than laypeople – Random selection is best done using a computer, a table of random numbers, or picking names out of a hat

Research Strategies • If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large

Research Strategies • If marbles of two colors are mixed well in the large jar, the fastest way to know their ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller one and count them

Ways Psychologists Conduct Research • ______________ • ________

Ways Psychologists Conduct Research • ______________ • ________

What is going on in this picture? We cannot say exactly, but we can

What is going on in this picture? We cannot say exactly, but we can describe what we see. Thus we have…. . _____ Research • Any research that observes and records. • Does not talk about relationships, it just describes.

Types of Descriptive Research • The Case Study • The Survey • Naturalistic Observation

Types of Descriptive Research • The Case Study • The Survey • Naturalistic Observation

______ Study • Detailed description of an individual being studied or treated – Freud’s

______ Study • Detailed description of an individual being studied or treated – Freud’s theories are based on case studies • Ex. Ratman, Wolfman –Genie, The Wild Child

What are Case Studies Strengths and Weaknesses?

What are Case Studies Strengths and Weaknesses?

The ____ Method • Used in both descriptional and correlational research. • Use Interview,

The ____ Method • Used in both descriptional and correlational research. • Use Interview, mail, phone, internet etc… • The Good- cheap, anonymous, diverse population, and easy to get random sampling (a sampling that represents your population you want to study).

Why do we sample? • One reason is the False Consensus Effect: the tendency

Why do we sample? • One reason is the False Consensus Effect: the tendency to _____ the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Survey Method: The Bad • _______ • People Lie or just misinterpret themselves. •

Survey Method: The Bad • _______ • People Lie or just misinterpret themselves. • ______ Effects How accurate would a survey be about the frequency of diarrhea?

______Observation • Observing and recording behavior in natural environment. • No control- just an

______Observation • Observing and recording behavior in natural environment. • No control- just an observer. What are the benefits and detriments of Naturalistic Observation?

__________ • Used to find out that people are more likely to laugh in

__________ • Used to find out that people are more likely to laugh in social situations than in solitary situations “There can never be enough said of the power of a shared laugh. ” ~Françoise Sagan

______ study • Study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed

______ study • Study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed (or examined, surveyed, etc. ) for an extended period of time (years) • Benefit – Same subject group throughout • Downfall – Time and expense

_______ study • Study in which a representative cross section of the population is

_______ study • Study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time • Benefit – Avoids time and expense

______ Research • Detects relationships between variables. • Does NOT say that one variable

______ Research • Detects relationships between variables. • Does NOT say that one variable causes another. – (Correlation does not =_____. ) • Correlations may be strong or weak.

Correlational Research • Correlations of +1 and -1 are ______strong • -1 is a

Correlational Research • Correlations of +1 and -1 are ______strong • -1 is a perfect negative correlation – The presence of one thing does not predict the presence of another thing • +1 is a perfect positive correlation – The presence of one thing predicts the presence of another thing

Correlational Research • The number _ denotes the weakest correlation – no correlation –

Correlational Research • The number _ denotes the weakest correlation – no correlation – Which means that knowing something about one variable tells you nothing about the other

Correlation Research • ________________ – a statistical measure of the extent to which two

Correlation Research • ________________ – a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Correlation coefficient r = +. 37 Indicates strength of relationship (0. 00 to 1. 00)

Research Strategies • ______ – a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents

Research Strategies • ______ – a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables – the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship – the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation • little scatter indicates high correlation – also called a scattergram or scatter diagram

Research Strategies Perfect_____ correlation (+1. 00) ____relationship (0. 00) Perfect_____ correlation (-1. 00)

Research Strategies Perfect_____ correlation (+1. 00) ____relationship (0. 00) Perfect_____ correlation (-1. 00)

 • Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships (1) Low self-esteem could cause Depression or (2)

• Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships (1) Low self-esteem could cause Depression or (2) Depression could cause Low self-esteem or (3) Distressing events or biological predisposition Low self-esteem could cause and Depression

Illusory Correlation • Illusory Correlation Adopt – the perception of a relationship where none

Illusory Correlation • Illusory Correlation Adopt – the perception of a relationship where none Do not adopt exists Conceive Do not conceive confirming evidence disconfirming evidence

Experimental Research • Explores _______relationships. Eating too many bananas causes Constipation

Experimental Research • Explores _______relationships. Eating too many bananas causes Constipation

Experimental Vocabulary • _______Variable: factor that is manipulated • _____ Variable: factor that is

Experimental Vocabulary • _______Variable: factor that is manipulated • _____ Variable: factor that is measured • _____ Group: Group exposed to IV • _______ Group: Group not exposed to IV, used for comparing results • _____ (Extraneous) Variables: Differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the IV’s

Experimental Vocabulary • ______ – process by which subjects are put into a group,

Experimental Vocabulary • ______ – process by which subjects are put into a group, experimental or control • _____ Assignment – The subject has an equal chance of being placed into any group – It controls for subject-relevant confounding variables

Experimental Vocabulary • ______ bias – unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of

Experimental Vocabulary • ______ bias – unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently influencing the results • ____ characteristics – (Subject Bias) – Cues about the purpose of the study • ____ desirability – tendency to try to give politically correct answers • _____ effect – the mere act of selecting a group has been known to effect the performance of that group • _____: inert substance that is in place of IV in Control Group

Experimental Vocabulary • _______– Neither the researcher or the subjects know about the nature

Experimental Vocabulary • _______– Neither the researcher or the subjects know about the nature of the IV – Helps eliminate experimenter bias • ______ study – Only the subjects do not know which group they have been assigned • ________ design - Using subjects as their own control group • ________ – Assigning half the subjects to one of the treatments first and the other half of the subjects to the other treatment first

Steps in Designing an Experiment 1. Hypothesis 2. Pick Population: Random Selection then Random

Steps in Designing an Experiment 1. Hypothesis 2. Pick Population: Random Selection then Random Assignment. 3. Operationalize the Variables 4. Identify Independent and Dependent Variables. 5. Look for Extraneous Variables 6. Type of Experiment: Blind, Double Blind etc. . 7. Gather Data 8. Analyze Results

Statistics • ______ statistics – describes a set of data, summarizes information about the

Statistics • ______ statistics – describes a set of data, summarizes information about the sample studied • ______ – measures the relationship between two variables • ______ statistics – Determines whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected

Descriptive Statistics • ____ – the most frequently occurring score in a distribution •

Descriptive Statistics • ____ – the most frequently occurring score in a distribution • ____ – the arithmetic average of a distribution – obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores • ____ – the middle score in a distribution – half the scores are above it and half are below it

Statistical Reasoning • A ________Distribution 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90

Statistical Reasoning • A ________Distribution 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 70 Mode Median One Family Mean Income per family in thousands of dollars 710

Statistical Reasoning • _______ – the difference between the highest and lowest scores in

Statistical Reasoning • _______ – the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution • _____ Deviation – a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean • Z- Scores – measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviations • Scores below the mean have negative z-scores • Scores above the mean have positive z-scores

Statistical Reasoning • __________ – a statistical statement of how likely it is that

Statistical Reasoning • __________ – a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance • P value – The smaller the p value, the more significant the results • . 05 is the cutoff for statistically significant results • . 05 means that a 5% chance exists that the results occurred by chance

APA Ethical Guidelines • Institutional review board (IRB) – reviews proposals for ethical violations

APA Ethical Guidelines • Institutional review board (IRB) – reviews proposals for ethical violations and/or procedural errors • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) – Reviews every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology

Human Research Ethics 1. __________– Subjects must know they are involved in research and

Human Research Ethics 1. __________– Subjects must know they are involved in research and give their consent 2. Coercion – Participation must be______ 3. _________________– Subjects privacy must be protected 4. _____– Subjects cannot be placed at significant mental or physical risk, decided by the review board 5. _______procedures – Subjects must be told the purpose of the study

Animal Research Ethics 1. Must have a_________ 2. Must ____for the animals in a

Animal Research Ethics 1. Must have a_________ 2. Must ____for the animals in a ______way 3. Must acquire animal subjects____ 4. Must design experimental procedures that employ the _______amount of suffering feasible