CHAPTER Thinking Language and Intelligence Thinking Language Intelligence

CHAPTER Thinking, Language and Intelligence • • Thinking Language Intelligence Controversies © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 8

Real World Psychology Things you’ll learn in Chapter 8 Q 1 Why might some medical treatments be judged as more effective than they really are? Q 2 Can outdoor activities or simply taking a walk improve your creativity? Q 3 Does speaking multiple languages make you smarter? Q 4 Do babies begin to learn language even before they are born? Q 5 Can personal traits and character strengths be better predictors of achievement than IQ? Q 6 Will watching TV dramas increase your emotional intelligence? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Cognitive Building Blocks • Cognition – Mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving and using knowledge • Mental image – Mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience (sight, sound, smell, tactile or taste) • Concept – Mental representation of a group or category © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Cognitive Building Blocks Concept 1 - Prototype • A mental image or best example that embodies the most typical features of a concept or category • A general, natural concept based on a typical representative • Example: What defines a bird? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Cognitive Building Blocks Concept 2 – Artificial Concept • aka formal concept • Formed when an example doesn’t quite fit the prototype • A general, natural concept based on a typical representative • Example: A penguin What – a bird that doesn’t fly? !? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Cognitive Building Blocks Concept 3 – Hierarchies • Subcategories within broader concepts • Helps in mastering new material more quickly and easily • Consists of higher-order, basic-level and lower-level concepts A child typically develops the basic-level concepts (bird) before learning the higher-order concepts (animal) or the lower-order concepts (robin). BEFORE © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Cognitive Building Blocks Hierarchies © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 1

Thinking Problem Solving • Moving from a given state (problem) to a goal state (solution) • Three steps: 1. Preparation – define goal, outline limits 2. Production – test possible options using: • Algorithms • Heuristics 3. Evaluation – determine if solution solves problem © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) 1. Preparation – Define your ultimate goal – Outline your limits and/or desires – Separate the negotiable from the nonnegotiable The new apartment must accept pets! 2. Production – Test your possible paths with an algorithm and/or a heuristic SEE PROCESS 3. Evaluation DIAGRAM 8. 1 – Did your possible solutions solve your problem? • YES: Take action to achieve your goal • NO: Return to the production and/or preparation stages © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) THREE PROBLEM SOLVING HEURISTICS AND YOUR CAREER PROBLEMSOLVING HEURISTICS Working backward DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Starts with the solution, a known condition, and works backward through the problem a. Become an experimental psychologist b. Ask your psychology professor to recommend graduate programs at various colleges and universities c. Contact those institutions for information on their academic requirements and admission policies d. Adapt your current courses to fit those institutional requirements and polices © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 1 a

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) THREE PROBLEM SOLVING HEURISTICS AND YOUR CAREER PROBLEMSOLVING HEURISTICS Means-end analysis DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Determine what measures would reduce the difference between the existing, given state and the end goal, then determine the means to reach the goal Knowing that a high GPA is needed to gain admission to a good graduate school, you ask your professors for study tips; and, you interview several “A” students to compare their study habits to yours; lastly, you determine the specific means (the number of hours and study techniques) required to meet your end goal of a high GPA. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 1 b

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) THREE PROBLEM SOLVING HEURISTICS AND YOUR CAREER PROBLEMSOLVING HEURISTICS Creating subgoals DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Break down a large, complex problem into a series of subgoals to serve as ‘stepping stones’ to take one at a time toward the end goal To get a good grade on a term paper, you make the following steps: a. Select a topic. b. Go to the library and Internet to locate information on that topic. c. Organize the information. d. Create an outline. e. Write the paper. f. Review the paper. g. Rewrite the paper and rewrite it again. h. On or before the due date, submit the final paper. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 1 c

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Algorithms and Heuristics Compared • Algorithms – Logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly, will always eventually solve the problem • Heuristics – Educated guess often used as a shortcut for problem solving – Doesn’t guarantee a solution but narrows the alternatives © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Algorithms and Heuristics Compared (continued) Example: You go into a grocery store to find some sun-dried tomatoes. How can you locate them? • Algorithm – walk each aisle until you find them • Heuristic – guess which section they might be in and go to those (Fresh produce? Canned vegetables? ) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Other Problem-solving Techniques • Insight - Sudden understanding of a solution - aka “Aha!” moments • Incubation period – Mentally setting aside the problem for a while until the solution comes without conscious thought © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Barriers to Problem Solving • Mental set – Continuing to use a problem -solving strategy that has worked in the past rather than trying new strategies Can you connect all nine dots using no more than 4 lines without lifting your pencil? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 2

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Barriers to Problem Solving • Functional fixedness FIGURE 8. 3 Using only the items shown, mount the candle to a wall so it won’t tip over – The inability to think of an object functioning only in its usual or customary way – Adversely affects problem solving and creativity © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) If I had known that, I wouldn’t have been nearly as afraid of Ebola! Barriers to Problem Solving • Availability heuristic – Estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on information that is readily available in our memory • Representativeness heuristic – Involves marking judgements based upon how well something matches (represents) an existing prototype or stereotype © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 4 Fact: Fewer people in the U. S. have died from the Ebola virus than have been married to Kim Kardashian!

Thinking Problem Solving (continued) Barriers to Problem Solving • Confirmation bias – Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence What does Sports Illustrated have to do with confirmation bias? How might the confirmation bias influence medical treatment decisions? Evaluating a religion? Selecting an election candidate? Choosing a new car? Serving on a jury? Something else? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 1 Why might some medical treatments be judged as more effective than they really are? • Medical doctors, therapists and others are not immune from confirmation bias. Based on their professional training and clinical experience, once they develop a preferred treatment, they may only seek that treatment. • As a result, certain treatments may be judged as being more effective than they actually are, and possibly better options will be ignored © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Problem Solving (conclusion) Problem Solving – Summary • Potential biases limit good judgment and problem solving • Availability and representativeness heuristics are shortcuts that are more likely to help us than hurt us, providing “inferences that are fast, frugal, and accurate” (Todd & Gigerenzer, 2000, p. 736) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Creativity • Creativity – the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valued outcomes in a novel way • Has three characteristics: – Originality – Fluency – Flexibility © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Creativity (continued) TABLE 8. 2 a © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Creativity (continued) The Example of Nikola Tesla Originality: He devised a means of transmitting power via an alternating current (AC), greatly reducing the power loss over long distances Fluency: He developed numerous AC systems including generators, motors and transformers Flexibility: He was a prolific inventor, holding over 300 patents. He also played a key role in developing florescent bulbs, neon signs, X-rays, the radio, lasers, remote controls, robotics and even the technology used in modern cell phones © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 2 b

Thinking Creativity (continued) Measured in Two Ways • Divergent thinking - Characterized by an ability to produce unusual but appropriate alternatives from a single starting point Note the arrangement of these ten colored discs. By moving only two of them, create two rows of six coins each. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Creativity (continued) …also measured in… • Convergent thinking - Characterized by seeking the single best solution to a problem Consider a time that you were faced with a problem for which you believed that there was only one best solution. How did you come to arrive at that solution? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 2 Can outdoor activities or simply taking a walk improve your creativity? • Research shows that, for children, outdoor activities have a positive effect on creativity. (Brussoni et al. , 2015) • In addition to outdoor activities and free play time for both children and adults, even taking a simple walk will increase creativity. What have you done today to boost your creativity? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Thinking Creativity (continued) Resources of Creative People Affective processes Emotional intelligence and joy in creative expression Intellectual ability Enough intelligence to see problems in a new light Knowledge Sufficient basic knowledge of the problem to effectively evaluate possible solutions Thinking style Novel ideas, divergent thinking and ability to distinguish between the worthy and the worthless Personality Conscientiousness, openness and willingness to grow and change, take risks and work to overcome obstacles Motivation Sufficient motivation to accomplish the task and more internal than external motivation Environment An environment that supports creativity © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 3

Language Characteristics • Language – A form of communication using sounds or symbols combined according to specified rules – May be spoken, written or signed – Allows us to communicate our thoughts, ideas and feelings – Consists of various components • Phonemes • Morphemes • Grammar (including syntax and semantics) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Characteristics (continued) • Phonemes – Smallest basic unit of speech or sound in any given language • Morphemes – Smallest meaningful unit of language; formed from a combination of phonemes • Grammar – Set of rules governing the use and structure of language; includes syntax (rules of word order) and semantics (rules for creating meaning) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Characteristics (continued) The three major building blocks of language FIGURE 8. 5 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Theories • Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis – Your language determines how you reason think and perceive the world – Language determines thought – Has been discredited in recent decades So, what do we know and believe about language and thought today? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 3 Does speaking multiple languages make you smarter? • Research shows that speaking multiple languages, and even just learning one new language, offers a wide range of benefits that might make you smarter, including increased attention, better communication skills and more gray matter in key brain regions (Bak et al. , 2016; Bialystok & Craik, 2010; Fan et al. , 2015; Olulade et al. , 2016) What experiences have you or a friend had with learning another language? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. ?

Language Theories (continued) Many brain areas are involved with language including the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe and the amygdala along with Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area and the hippocampus FIGURE 8. 6 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Theories (continued) a. Using PET scans to study language and the brain, we can see that language generated in the front lobe (center left) has its cognition checked in the temporal lobe (lower right). FIGURE 8. 7 b. Working out the meaning of heard words makes areas of the temporal lobe light up. c. Repeating words increases activity in the Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, as well as a motor region responsible for pronouncing words (reddish area at the top). © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Development Language Acquisition BIRTH TO 12 MONTHS Features Examples Crying (reflexive in newborns) becomes more purposeful hunger cry, anger cry and pain cry Cooing (vowel-like sounds) at 2 -3 months “ooooh, ” “aaaah” Babbling (consonants added) at 4 -6 months “bahbahbah, ” “dahdahdah” TABLE 8. 4 a © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Development (continued) Language Acquisition 12 MONTHS TO 2 YEARS Features Examples Babbling resembles language of the environment “Mama, ” “Da Da” and child understands that sounds relate to meaning Speech consists of one-word utterances “Juice, ” “Up” Expressive ability more than doubles once words “Daddy milk, ” “no nightare joined into short phrases night!” Overextension (using words to include objects that do not fit the word’s meaning) TABLE 8. 4 b all men = “Daddy, ” all furry animals = “doggy” © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Development (continued) Language Acquisition 2 YEARS TO 5 YEARS Features Examples Telegraphic speech (like telegrams, omits nonessential connecting words) “Me want cookie” “Grandma go bye-bye? ” Vocabulary increases at a phenomenal rate Child acquires a wide variety of grammar rules Adding –ed for past tense, adding s to form plurals Overgeneralization (applying the basic rules “I goed to the zoo, ” “Two of grammar even to cases that are exceptions mans” TABLE to the rule) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 8. 4 c

Q 4 Do babies begin to learn language even before they are born? • Research had newborns hear their native language or a different language (English and Swedish) while sucking on a pacifier hooked to a computer • The babies who heard the foreign language sucked more frequently, suggesting babies are more interested in hearing new sounds, as if they had already become accustomed to their native language while in utero (Moon et al. , 2013) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Development (continued) Theories of Language Development • Nativist position – Children are “prewired” with a neurological ability in the brain to learn language • Noam Chomsky, language acquisition device • Nurturist position – Children learn language through a complex system of rewards, punishments and imitation • Parental responses and encouragement are noted © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Language Can Human Animals Talk with Nonhuman Animals? • Many: nonhuman animals communicate, but they are not using true language – Don’t convey subtle meanings, use language creatively or communicate at an abstract level • Others: operantly conditioned; ‘jury is out’ © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURES 8. 9 (top) & 8. 10 (above)

Intelligence The Nature of Intelligence • Intelligence defined – The global capacity to: • think rationally • act purposefully • profit from experience • deal effectively with the environment © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence The Nature of Intelligence (continued) Cultural Variations in Views on Intelligence • What intelligence is – Mandarin: “good brain and talented” – Some: imitation, effort and social responsibility • How intelligence is perceived – Germany: smilers are more intelligent – China: smilers are less intelligent © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence The Nature of Intelligence (continued) Single-factor View • Spearman: general intelligence (g) – Overall general intellectual ability – g underlies all Multiple-factor Views • Thurstone: 7 primary mental abilities • Guilford: 120 factors • Cattrell: 2 main factors • Other views intellectual abilities © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence The Nature of Intelligence (continued) 7 Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone) 1. Verbal comprehension 2. Word fluency 3. Numerical fluency 4. Spatial visualization 5. Associative memory 6. Perceptual speed 7. Reasoning © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence The Nature of Intelligence (continued) Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence (Cattrell) • Largely innate • Learned through education and (Reasoning, memory, experience speed of information processing) • Independent of education • Tends to decline with age • Varies with access to knowledge (education) • Tends to increase with age © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence • Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Derived from standardized tests – Was calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age (CA) and then multiplying by 100 – Now tabulated by comparing individual scores with the scores of others of the same age © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) • Intelligence tests – Most are designed to predict grades in school – Two most well known • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale – Loosely based on tests developed in France by Alfred Binet – Developed in its current form at Stanford University – Used for ages 3 to 16 – Last revised in 2003 – Includes tasks such as copying geometric designs, identifying similarities and repeating number sequences © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – Developed by David Wechsler (early 1900’s) – Version also developed for use with children – Includes four separate index scores for specific areas • • Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed – Most widely used test today © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Items similar to those on the Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) Visual Puzzles © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 12 a

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Items similar to those on the Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) Figure Weights © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 12 b

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) The normal distribution (bell curve) of scores on intelligence tests © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Three Basic Requirements for Psychological Tests 1. Standardization - Uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test, interview or experiment or for recording data 2. Reliability - The degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used; stability or consistency of the scores 3. Validity -The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Extremes in Intelligence • Intellectually disabled – Characteristics • Significantly below average in intellectual functioning • Significant deficits in adaptive functioning – Fewer than 3% of people • Of this group, 85% have mild intellectual disability • May score low on some areas and average or gifted on others © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence / Measuring Intelligence (continued) Degrees of Intellectual Disability © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. LEVEL OF DISABILITY IQ SCORE S GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Mild (85%) 50 -70 Often able to become self-sufficient; may marry, have families and secure full-time jobs in low-skilled occupations Moderate (10%) 35 -49 Able to perform simple, low-skilled tasks; may contribute to a certain extent to their livelihood Severe (3 -4%) 20 -34 Able to follow daily routines, but needs supervision; with training, may learn basic communication skills Profound (1 -2%) < 20 Able to perform only the most rudimentary behaviors, such as walking, feeding themselves and saying a few phrases TABLE 8. 5

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Extremes in Intelligence • Savant syndrome – A condition in which a person with generally limited mental abilities exhibits exceptional skill or brilliance in some limited field – Examples Pictured: • • Rapid calculation Art Memory Musical ability Musical savant Derek Paravicini © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 13

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) Causes of Intellectual Disability • Genetic abnormalities – Down syndrome – Fragile-X – Phenylketonuria (PKU) • Environmental – Prenatal exposure to drugs – Deprivation early in life – Brain damage from accidents © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intelligence Measuring Intelligence (continued) • Gifted or high IQ – Usually defined as the top 1 to 2% of IQ scores – General characteristics • Higher rates of becoming successful professionals • Received extraordinary motivation and support (school and home) Gifted individuals fare no differently than the general population in rates of alcohol abuse, divorce and suicide © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 5 Can personal traits and character strengths be better predictors of achievement than IQ? • High IQ is no guarantee of success in any endeavor. Personal traits and character strengths - like self-control, motivation and perseverance – may be the strongest predictors of overall achievement and wellbeing. Have a growth-mindset - the belief that intelligence can be developed over time is particularly important to intellectual achievement. (Dweck, 2007; Mischel, 2014; Rattan et al. , 2015) © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Nature, Nurture & IQ • The brain’s influence on intelligence Pictured: PET scan images of a low-IQ brain (L) and a high-IQ brain (R) during a problem-solving task FIGURE 8. 14 – High IQ achievers also respond more quickly on task requiring perceptual judgements – PET scans show that intelligent brains work smarter, or more efficiently, than less-intelligent brains © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Nature, Nurture & IQ (continued) Genetic and environmental influences on IQ FIGURE 8. 15 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Nature, Nurture & IQ (continued) • Genetic and environmental influences on intelligence – Environment significantly influences whether a person will reach full potential – Similarities from reared-apart twin studies may be from the shared prenatal environment and/or similar adoptive environments © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 15 b

Intellectual Controversies Nature, Nurture & IQ (continued) Environmental Influences (continued) • Early malnutrition can stunt a child’s physical brain development – This affects responsiveness to environment and motivation for learning, ultimately lowering IQ • Neglect can have a pronounced negative on the developing © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. effect brain FIGURE 8. 16

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores • Historical group differences exist in average IQ scores – Differences between groups are environmental (different soil) not genetic (same seeds) – Greatest differences appear within groups (some blacks score high, some score low; some whites score high, some score low FIGURE 8. 17 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores Sex Differences in IQ • Brain areas for language skills are generally larger in women than in men • The brain area for manipulating spatial relationships and mathematical abilities is typically larger in men than in women • Possible explanations - Gradual genetic adaptations - Social / environmental adaptions © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores (continued) Brain Sex Differences Areas of the brain in blue are, on average, larger in women than in men FIGURE 8. 18 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Areas of the brain in green are, on average, larger in men than in women

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS FAVORING WOMEN Perceptual speed: As quickly as possible, identify the matching items. Displaced objects: After looking at the middle picture, tell which item is missing from the picture on the right. Verbal fluency: List words that begin with the same letter. Precision manual tasks: Place the pegs in the holes as quickly as possible. Mathematical calculation: Compute the answer. TABLE 8. 6 a © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS FAVORING MEN Spatial tasks: Mentally rotate the 3 D object to identify its match. Spatial tasks: Mentally manipulate the folded paper to tell where the holes will fall when it is unfolded. Target-directed motor skills: Hit the bull’s eye. Disembedding tests: Find the simple shape on the left in the more complex figures. Mathematical reasoning: What is the answer? TABLE 8. 6 b © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores (continued) What else affects differences in IQ? Can you • Various environmental and think cultural factors of • Culturally-biased IQ tests any? • Intelligence is not a fixed trait • Stereotype threat: Awareness of negative stereotypes causing some individuals to doubt their abilities and may lead to impairment in performance © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores (continued) How stereotype threat leads to decreased performance FIGURE 8. 19 © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Group Differences in IQ Scores (continued) The “Obama effect” versus stereotype threat Some research found that having Barak Obama as president improved academic performance in people of color, thus offsetting the stereotype threat. The existence of this “Obama effect” has been inconclusive in other studies, either by finding no relationship between test performance and positive thoughts about President Obama or by returning mixed results. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 8. 20

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) Additional views of multi-factor intelligence • Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner) – People have different intellectual profiles of intelligence because they are stronger in some areas that others – People use their intelligences differently to learn new material, perform tasks and solve problems – Most people possess one or more natural intelligences important to success in various occupations © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE / DESCRIPTION POSSIBLE CAREERS Linguistic: Language, such as speaking, reading a book, writing a story Novelist, journalist, teacher Spatial: Mental maps, such as figuring out how to pack multiple presents in a box or how to draw a floor plan Engineer, architect, pilot Bodily/kinesthetic: Body movement, such as dancing, soccer and football Athlete, dancer, ski instructor Intrapersonal: Understanding oneself, such as setting achievable goals or recognizing self-defeating behaviors Increased success in almost all careers Logical/mathematical: Problem solving or scientific analysis, such as following a logical proof or solving a mathematical problem Mathematician, scientist, engineer © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 7 a

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (continued) TYPE OF INTELLIGENCE / DESCRIPTION POSSIBLE CAREERS Musical: Musical skills, such as singing or playing a musical instrument Singer, musician, composer Interpersonal: Social skills, such as managing diverse groups of people Salesperson, manager, therapist, teacher Naturalistic: Being attuned to nature, such as noticing seasonal patterns or using environmentally safe products Biologist, naturalist Spiritual/existential: Attunement to meaning of life and death, and other conditions of life Philosopher, theologian © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 7 b

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) Additional views of multi-factor intelligence • Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence (Sternberg) – People have three separate, learned aspects of intelligence: • Analytic • Creative • Practical – ‘Successful’ intelligence is the learned ability to adapt to, shape and select environments in order to accomplish personal and societal goals © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) PRACTICAL Sternberg’s ANALYTICAL Triarchic Theory. CREATIVE of Successful Intelligence INTELLIGENCE Sample skills Good at analysis, evaluation, judgement and comparison skills G 0 od at invention, coping with novelty and imagination skills Good at application, implementation, execution and utilization skills Methods of assessment Intelligence tests assess the meaning of words based on context, and how to solve numberseries problems Open-ended tasks, writing a short story, creating a piece of art, solving a scientific problem requiring thought Tasks requiring solutions to practical, personal problems © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. TABLE 8. 8

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) Additional views of multi-factor intelligence • Emotional Intelligence (EI) (Goleman) – The ability to perceive, understand, manage and utilize emotions accurately and appropriately – Offers an explanation as to why some people who are very intelligent in terms of “book smarts” still experience frequent conflicts and repeated failures in their friendships and work situations © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Q 6 Will watching TV dramas increase your emotional intelligence? • Research has shown that people who watch televised dramas – such as Mad Men – show increases in emotional intelligence, more so that those who watch documentaries (Black & Barnes, 2015) - This suggests that just seeing dramas may help expose us to different emotions, which increases our awareness of them. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Intellectual Controversies Multiple Intelligences (continued) How do we develop emotional intelligence? FIGURE 8. 21 • Parents empathizing with their young children helps them to recognize and manage their own emotions • Modeling and instruction are vital to the development of EI Should EI be taught in schools? © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.