Myers PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 18 Social Psychology Social Thinking

Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 18 Social Psychology

Social Thinking § Social Psychology § scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another § Attribution Theory § tendency to give a causal explanation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

Social Thinking § Fundamental Attribution Error § tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition § Attitude § belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

Social Thinking § How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it Situational attribution “Maybe that driver is ill. ” Tolerant reaction (proceed cautiously, allow driver a wide berth) Dispositional attribution “Crazy driver!” Unfavorable reaction (speed up and race past the other driver, give a dirty look) Negative behavior

Social Thinking § Our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences Internal attitudes External influences Behavior

Social Thinking § Attitudes follow behavior § Cooperative actions feed mutual liking

Social Thinking § Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon § tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request § Role § set of expectations about a social position § defines how those in the position ought to behave

Social Thinking § Cognitive Dissonance Theory § we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent § example- when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Social Thinking § Cognitive dissonance

End Day 1 z. Homework – Question at end of objectives on pg. 730

Social Influence z. Social influence can be seen in our conformity, our compliance, and our group behavior z. Some things come in clusters such as suicides, bomb threats, hijackings, and UFO sightings z. We act according to social norms, dissenters become rebels – all determined by pulls on the “social strings. ”

Social Influence § Behavior is contagious § Chameleon effect – we are natural mimics § We feel happy when we around happy people and sad around depressed people

Conformity Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard § Asch test § 1 person arrives to study in time to sit at table where 5 people already are § Everyone is asked which of 3 lines is identical to standard line § Repeated § 3 rd time, the first person that answers gives an incorrect answer; everyone else follows with the same wrong answer § You now get tense and question what to do. Everyone gave the wrong answer. What to do?

Social Influence § Asch’s conformity experiments

Strengthening Conformity z. Conformity increases when: y. One is made to feel incompetent or insecure y. A group has at least 3 people y. The group in unanimous y. One admires the group’s status or attractiveness y. One has made no commitments to any response y. Others in the group observe one’s behavior y. One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards

Why Conform? z Why do we do what others do? § Normative Social Influence! § influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval § We are sensitive to social norms because price we pay to be different may be severe

Informational Social Influence z. When we accept others’ opinions about reality z. Assume others are right and follow their lead z. Baron, et. al. demonstrated our openness to informational influence on tough, important judgments

End Day 2 z. Conformity assignment! z. Do something non-conformist! z. Don’t break any rules or laws z. Write a summary of what you did, how people reacted, and how you felt z. Examples – stand backward in an elevator, wear different colored shoes, etc.

Obedience z. We comply with social pressure z. But do we comply when we are ordered to do something? z. What if they are commands? z. Milgram set out to test it (1963, 1974) z. One of the most famous and controversial studies in psychology

Milgram z You are told the study is about the effect of punishment on learning z Draw from a hat to see who will be the “teacher” and who will be the “learner” z Your slip says you will be the teacher z Lerner placed in another room and attached to electric shock machine z You sit in from of machine that has different voltages labeled. z What are you thinking? ? ?

Milgram Continued z You teach and then test the “learner” on word pairs z You are to punish the learner for wrong answers by delivering electric shocks z Start with 15 volts which is labeled “slight shock” z After each incorrect answer you are to move up to the next voltage z After 3 rd, 4 th, and 5 th the learner grunts z After 8 th the learner shouts about the pain z After 10 th the learner cries to get him out of there and demands to be let out z You are prodded to go on z Thoughts? ? ?

Even More Milgram z If you refuse, the experimenter insists that MUST go on z If you obey, the learner’s protests escalate to shrieks of agony z After 330 volts the learner refuses to answer and goes silent z You are ordered to go on, to the 450 volt switch, if no answer you are to shock the “learner”

How Far? ? ? z. How far would you go when “ordered” to shock the learner for wrong answers? z. Most people say they would have stopped at the first sign of pain and certainly before the shriek z. Men age 20 -50 63% complied to the end z. Later studies concluded that women’s compliance rates were similar. z. Ugh

Social Influence § Milgram’s follow-up obedience experiment

Reliability? Validity? Ethics? z Did “teachers” figure out it was a hoax? y. Did they know no shock was being delivered? y. Did they think learners were faking it? z No! Teachers typically displayed genuine distress z Was it ethical? z When participants were told truth they felt no regret y. No emotional aftereffects z Does that make it okay? z He wondered if they continued because the “learners” were not convincing, repeated and changed variables (“slight heart condition”) no change!

Compliance z He repeated it later and changed variables (subtle details) z Determined that obedience is highest when: z Person giving orders was close and perceived to be a legitimate authority figure z Authority figure is supported by a prestigious institution z The victim was depersonalized or at a distance z There were no role models for defiance (no one else was seen disobeying the experimenter)

Social Influence § Some individual resist social coercion

Lessons from Milgram and Asch z. Strong social influences can make people conform z. Great evils will make us succumb to lesser evils z. Evil only requires ordinary people in evil situations

Group Influence z. How do groups influence us? z. Study individuals in groups z. How are we influenced by the mere presence of others?

Social Influence § Social Facilitation § improved performance of tasks in the presence of others § occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered § Social Loafing § tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Social Facilitation

Social Influence § Deindividuation § Being in a group can lead to uninhibited behavior § Abandon normal restraints to the power of the group § i. e. yelling at refs/officials during a game § Often occurs when participation in the group makes people feel aroused anonymous

Social Influence § Interacting with others can similarly have good and bad effects § Group Polarization § enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group § Over time differences b/w groups tends to grow § Groupthink § mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives

End Day 3 z. Using the definitions given in notes, with help from examples in text (pages 738741), describe a situation that is an example of each (you can make it up): y. Social facilitation y. Social loafing y. Deindividuation y. Group polarization y. Groupthink

Culture and Behavior z. Culture is the behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next z. Not nationalities or ethnic groups but rather shared experiences z. Humans differ but we all have a shared capacity for culture y. This accounts for striking group differences z. Human nature manifests human diversity

Variations Across Cultures z. Each cultural group evolves their own norms y. Rules for accepted/expected behavior z. When cultures collide differing norms often befuddle yi. e. personal space - North Americans, British and Scandinavians have more personal space demands than Latin Americans, French or Arabs z. Cultures also vary in expressiveness and pace of life z. Cultures evolve and change over time, Americans of 1700 would clash with Americans of today

Power of Individual z. Social control (power of situation) and personal control (power of individual) interact z. When we sway from the majority we can make social history z. Minority influence: power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway majorities esp. when consistent (do not sway in their opinion) z. When minority opinion is not visible it still may be forcing others to change the way they think – giving it power.

Social Relations z. We have looked at how we thing and how we influence one another z. Now we will look at how we relate to one another z. Prejudice, aggression, attraction, altruism and peacemaking

Prejudice - Defined z. Prejudgment z. Unjustifiable and usually negative z. Prejudice is a mixture of beliefs that cause stereotypes, emotions mixed with predisposition to action lead to action (discrimination) y. To believe that obese people are gluttonous, to feel dislike for an obese person, to be hesitant to hire/date an obese person is to be prejudiced z. Prejudice is a negative attitude; discrimination is a negative behavior

How People Are Prejudiced z. Dramatic difference in the last half century in America z. Overt prejudice waned, overt prejudice remains z. Might say we are okay with interracial marriage, but would admit to feeling uncomfortable in an intimate setting with someone of a different race z. Sometimes overt prejudice still surfaces

Overt Prejudice z. After 9/11 and the Iraq war 4 in 10 Americans acknowledged some prejudice against Muslims z. Also see it with homosexuals and also some gender prejudice/discrimination continues z. In 2003, when asked if they could have only one child what gender would they prefer y 2/3 rds still said male z. Not all bad news y. People feel more positively, in general, about women compared to men

Roots of Prejudice § Social inequities § “Haves” develop attitudes to justify things as they are § tereotypes rationalize inequities § Women have been perceived as unassertive but sensitive and therefore suited for caretaking roles § Ingroup v. Outgroup § § § We are a group-minded species Safety in solidarity – divide world into “us” and “them” Causes communal solidarity but also racism and war Most intense dislike for other groups like us Ingroup bias – we favor our group

Emotions and Prejudice z. Prejudice can also be increased by passions of the heart z. Can also express as anger z. Scapegoat theory – finding someone to blame when things go wrong y. Target for one’s anger y. Post 9/11 and elimination of Hussein

Cognitive Roots of Stereotypes z. Prejudice comes from the mind’s natural workings too y. We cognitively simplify the world z. Categorization: We naturally categorize things, including people which creates biases because we oversimplify similarities y. Other-race effect = own-race bias z. Vivid cases: we judge by the frequency that things come to mind

Vivid Cases § Vivid cases (9/11 terrorists) feed stereotypes

Cognitive Roots Continued z Just World: Justify prejudice by blaming its victims y“People get what they deserve” y. Good is rewarded and evil is punished y. Short leap to the idea that those who succeed must be good and those who suffer must be bad y. German civilian remarked after visiting a concentration camp, “what terrible criminals these prisoners must have been to receive such treatment y. Hindsight bias also at work here x. Blame the victim, did something to deserve it

Aggression z. Most destructive force in social relations z. Any physical or verbal behavior INTENDED to hurt or destroy, whether done reactively or proactively z. Research shows it emerges from a combo of biology and experience

Biology of Aggression z Considered to be an unlearned instinct z Genetic influences z Natural influences y. Neural system that when stimulated to inhibit or produce aggressive behavior x. No one spot in the brain controls aggression x. Neural system will facilitate aggression with provocation z Biochemical influences y. Hormones, alcohol and other substances in the blood can influence neural systems that control aggression

More on Biochemical… z Testosterone is indicated with higher aggression levels y. It heightens dominance and aggressiveness y. But dominating behavior also boosts testosterone – so it is a 2 -way street z Alcohol y. Aggressive people are more likely to drink y. Aggressive people are more likely to become violent when drinking z Humans are less sensitive to hormonal changes than other animals

Psychology of Aggression z What are the biological factors that pull the trigger on aggression? z Aversive effects: suffering, those made miserable make others miserable z Frustration-aggression principle: frustration creates anger which can generate aggression z Physical pain, personal insults, rejection/ostracism, foul odors, hot temperatures, violent crime, abuse (esp. in presence of aggressive trigger) can generate aggression (fight or flight)

Social Relations

Learning and Aggression z Learning and conditioning can have effect on aggression z Aggression when experience has taught us that aggression pays z Social and cultural factors also play a role y. More crime when from single family home z Once established, aggressive patterns are hard to change z Aggression-replacement programs – positive rather than negative – replace the aggression z “When you are done you can play” rather than “do this now or you can’t go play” z Do we learn aggression through modeling (TV, video games, etc. )?

Conflict z. Seeming incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas z. Elements of conflict are the same no matter the size of the conflict (war to spat with friend) z. Why? Why does conflict exist? What causes it?

Social Relations § Social Trap: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior § Well being of self v. well being of all or group § We reconcile our right to pursue things that might negatively impact the greater good § NIMBY § Enemy Perceptions: Conflict allows us to create diabolical images of each other § Each demonizes the other

Attraction z 3 ingredients in our liking of one another: proximity, physical attractiveness, and similarity z Mere exposure effect: the phenomena that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them y. Advertisers abuse this! y. Even applies to ourselves! We like the image we see in the mirror while friends and loved one like what they see z Attractiveness increases opportunities for proximity y. Judgments vary by culture z Similarity make people more attractive on first impression z We tend to like people who reward us in some way, more rewards than costs

Social Relations. Attractiveness § Mere Exposure Effect § repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them § Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture

Social Relations § Passionate Love § an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another § usually present at the beginning of a love relationship § Companionate Love § deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Social Relations § Equity § a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it § Self-Disclosure § revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others § Altruism § unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Relations § Bystander Effect § tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social Relations § The decision-making process for bystander intervention

Social Relations § Social Exchange Theory § theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs § Superordinate Goals § shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Social Relations § Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-reduction (GRIT) § a strategy designed to decrease international tensions § one side announces recognition of mutual interests and initiates a small conciliatory act § opens door for reciprocation by other party