UNIT 3 GENETICS Chapter 6 Meiosis and Mendel

“hairy ears” (hypertrichosis)- due to holandric gene. (Y chromosome)-only occurs in males. Appears in

‘Myths and Mutants’ Work with animals led to recognition of heritable traits in humans

I. Chromosomes and Meiosis (6. 1) A. You have many types of specialized cells

b. Germ Cells- cells in your reproductive organs, the ovaries and testes 1). Can

2. Gametes have DNA that is passed to offspring in chromosomes

B. Each species has characteristic number of chromosomes per cell. 1. Chromosome number does

II. You cells have autosomes and sex chromosomes A. Your body has 23 pairs

B. Autosomes- chromosome pairs 1 -22 are called autosomes (are homologous)

C. Sex chromosomes- pair of chromosomes 1. Directly control development of sexual characteristics 2.

D. Body cells are diploid; gametes are haploid 1. sexual reproduction involves fusion of

2. Diploid and Haploid cells a. Body cells are diploid (two copies of each

3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms

3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms 4.

II. Process of Meiosis (6. 2) A. Cells go through two rounds of division

B. Homologous Chromosomes and sister Chromatids 1. Need to distinguish between the two to

b. Each half of duplicated chromosome is called a chromatid. (together called sister

C. Meiosis I (first of two phases) 1. Occurs after DNA has been replicated

D. Meiosis II (second of two phases) 1. Divides sister chromatids in four phases

E. Meiosis differs from mitosis in significant ways. 1. Meiosis has two cell divisions

F. Haploid cells develop into mature gametes 1. gametogenesis- production of mature gametes

2. Differs between the sexes a. Males produce 4 equal sperm cells b. Females

III. Mendel and Heredity (6. 3) A. Mendel laid the groundwork for genetics 1.

B. Mendel’s data revealed patterns of inheritance 1. Mendel studied plant variation in a

3. Experimental design a. Mendel chose pea plants because reproduce quickly and could control

b. Crossed purebred white-flowered with purebred purple-flowered pea plants. 1). Called parental, or P

c. Allowed F 1 generation to self-pollinate 1). Produced F 2 generation that had

d. He began to observe patterns- Each cross yielded similar ratios in F 2

4. Mendel made three important conclusions a. Traits are inherited as discrete units (explained

b. Two other key conclusions collectively called the law of segregation 1). Organisms inherit

IV. Traits, Genes, and Alleles (6. 4) A. The same gene can have many

a. Most genes exist in many forms (called alleles) b. You have two alleles

2. Homozygous- means two of same allele 3. Heterozygous- two different alleles

B. Genes influence the development of traits 1. Genome- is all the organisms genetic

C. Dominant and Recessive Alleles 1. Dominant alleles- allele that is expressed when two

2. Recessive alleles- only expressed if have two copies of recessive present (use small-case

D. Alleles and Phenotypes 1. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes yield a dominant

V. Traits and Probability (6. 5) A. Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses 1. Used

Punnett Square parents gametes Dominant Allele Possible offspring Recessive allele homozygous heterozygous

B. Monohybrid cross involves one trait 1. Homozygous dominant X Homozygous recessive Genotypic ratio

2. Heterozygous X Heterozygous Genotypic ratio 1: 2: 1 Phenotypic ratio 3: 1

3. Heterozygous X Homozygous recessive Genotypic ratio 1: 1 Phenotypic ratio 1: 1

C. Test Cross- a cross between organism with an unknown genotype and an organism

D. Dihybrid cross involves two traits 1. Mendel also conducted dihybrid crosses- wondered if

3. Mendel’s dihybrid crosses led to his second law, the law of independent assortment.

E. Heredity patterns can be calculated with probability 1. probability - the likelihood that

VI. Meiosis and Genetic Variation (6. 6) A. Sexual reproduction creates unique gene combinations

2. 223 possible sperm or egg cells produced 223 X 223 = about 70

B. Crossing over during meiosis increases genetic diversity 1. crossing over - exchange of

C. Linked genes - genes located on the same chromosome inherited together. 1. Closer

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study a. flowering. b. gamete formation. c. the

Offspring that result from crosses between true-breeding parents with different traits a. are true-breeding.

What are Mendel’s factors called today? a. alleles b. traits c. genes d. characters

Mendel concluded that traits are a. not inherited by offspring. b. inherited through the

The principle of dominance states that a. alleles are dominant. b. alleles are recessive.

When Mendel crossed true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all the offspring were

If a pea plant has a recessive allele for green peas, it will produce

When you flip a coin, what is the probability that it will come up

The principles of probability can be used to a. predict the traits of the

Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait are said to be

In the Punnett square shown in Figure 11 -1, which of the following is

In the Punnett square shown in below, which of the following is true about

What does a Punnett square NOT show? a. all possible results of a genetic

If you made a Punnett square showing Mendel’s cross between true-breeding tall plants with

What principle states that during gamete formation genes for different traits separate without influencing

The Punnett square in Figure above shows that the gene for pea shape and

How many different allele combinations would be found in the gametes produced by a

Situations in which one allele for a gene is not completely dominant over another

A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring.

Mendel’s principles of genetics apply to a. plants only. b. animals only. c. pea

If an organism’s diploid number is 12, its haploid number is a. 12. b.

Gametes are produced by the process of a. mitosis. b. meiosis. crossing-over. d. replication.

What is shown in figure above? a. independent assortment b. b. anaphase I of

What is shown in figure above? a. independent assortment b. anaphase I of meiosis

Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in the formation of a. diploid cells. b. haploid cells.

Linked genes a. are never separated. b. assort independently. c. are on the same

If two genes are on the same chromosome and rarely assort independently, a. crossing-over

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UNIT 3 GENETICS

Chapter 6 Meiosis and Mendel

“hairy ears” (hypertrichosis)- due to holandric gene. (Y chromosome)-only occurs in males. Appears in all sons.

Polydactyly- having extra fingers

‘Myths and Mutants’ Work with animals led to recognition of heritable traits in humans Stories of heritable deformities in humans appear in myths and legends (e. g. cyclops, giants, etc. ) • 60 birth defects on Babylonian clay tablets (5000 years ago) • Knowledge of traits played role in shaping social customs and mores (e. g. choosing a wife/husband)

I. Chromosomes and Meiosis (6. 1) A. You have many types of specialized cells in your body 1. Cells can be divided into two types a. Somatic Cells- body cells. Make up most of your body tissues and organs.

b. Germ Cells- cells in your reproductive organs, the ovaries and testes 1). Can develop into gametes (called sex cells) 2). Form egg and sperm cells

2. Gametes have DNA that is passed to offspring in chromosomes

B. Each species has characteristic number of chromosomes per cell. 1. Chromosome number does not seem to be linked to complexity of organism. 2. Organisms differ from each other because of way genes are expressed, not because they have different genes.

II. You cells have autosomes and sex chromosomes A. Your body has 23 pairs of chromosomes 1. Each pair referred to as homologous pair 2. Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes- one from father and one from mother

B. Autosomes- chromosome pairs 1 -22 are called autosomes (are homologous)

C. Sex chromosomes- pair of chromosomes 1. Directly control development of sexual characteristics 2. Very different in humans (not homologous) a. X chromosome- female b. Y-chromosome- male Sex chromosomes

D. Body cells are diploid; gametes are haploid 1. sexual reproduction involves fusion of two gametes a. results in genetic mixture of both parents b. Fusion of egg and sperm called fertilization c. Egg and sperm only have half usual number of chromosomes

2. Diploid and Haploid cells a. Body cells are diploid (two copies of each chromosome) b. Gametes are haploid (have one copy of each chromosome)

3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms

3. Maintaining the correct number of chromosomes is important to survival of organisms 4. Germ cells (sex cells) undergo process of meiosis to form gametes a. diploid cell divides into haploid cell b. Sometimes called reduction division Haploid cells

II. Process of Meiosis (6. 2) A. Cells go through two rounds of division in meiosis 1. Meiosis produces four haploid cells from one diploid cell 2. Process involves two rounds of cell division- Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

B. Homologous Chromosomes and sister Chromatids 1. Need to distinguish between the two to understand meiosis 2. Homologous chromosomes- two separate chromosomes- one from mother, one from father. a. very similar to each other- same length and carry same genes

b. Each half of duplicated chromosome is called a chromatid. (together called sister chromatids) 1). Homologous chromosomes divided in meiosis I 2). Sister chromatids not divided until meiosis II Sister chromotids

C. Meiosis I (first of two phases) 1. Occurs after DNA has been replicated 2. Divides homologous chromosomes in four phases

D. Meiosis II (second of two phases) 1. Divides sister chromatids in four phases 2. DNA is not replicated between meiosis I and meiosis II

E. Meiosis differs from mitosis in significant ways. 1. Meiosis has two cell divisions while mitosis has one. 2. In mitosis, homologous chromosomes never pair up 3. Meiosis results in haploid cells; mitosis results in diploid cells.

F. Haploid cells develop into mature gametes 1. gametogenesis- production of mature gametes

2. Differs between the sexes a. Males produce 4 equal sperm cells b. Females produce one large egg and smaller polar bodies that are eventually broken down

III. Mendel and Heredity (6. 3) A. Mendel laid the groundwork for genetics 1. Traits are distinguishing characteristics that are inherited. 2. Genetics is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variation. 3. Gregor Mendel showed that traits are inherited as discrete units. 4. Many in Mendel’s day thought traits were blended.

B. Mendel’s data revealed patterns of inheritance 1. Mendel studied plant variation in a monastery garden 2. Mendel made three key decisions in his experiments a. Control over breeding b. Use of purebred plants c. Observation of “either- or” traits (only appear two alternate forms)

3. Experimental design a. Mendel chose pea plants because reproduce quickly and could control how they mate

b. Crossed purebred white-flowered with purebred purple-flowered pea plants. 1). Called parental, or P generation 2). Resulting plants (first filial or F 1 generation) all had purple flowers

c. Allowed F 1 generation to self-pollinate 1). Produced F 2 generation that had both plants with purple and white flowers) 2). Trait for white had been “hidden”, it did not disappear.

d. He began to observe patterns- Each cross yielded similar ratios in F 2 generation (3/4 had purple, and 1/4 white)

4. Mendel made three important conclusions a. Traits are inherited as discrete units (explained why individual traits persisted without being blended or diluted over successive generations)

b. Two other key conclusions collectively called the law of segregation 1). Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent 2). Organisms donate only one copy of each gene in their gametes (two copies of each gene segregate, or separate, during gamete formation

IV. Traits, Genes, and Alleles (6. 4) A. The same gene can have many versions 1. gene- a “piece” of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain protein.

a. Most genes exist in many forms (called alleles) b. You have two alleles for each gene`

2. Homozygous- means two of same allele 3. Heterozygous- two different alleles

B. Genes influence the development of traits 1. Genome- is all the organisms genetic material 2. Genotype- refers to genetic makeup of a specific set of genes 3. Phenotypes- physical characteristics of organism (wrinkled or round seeds)

C. Dominant and Recessive Alleles 1. Dominant alleles- allele that is expressed when two different alleles or two dominant alleles are present (use capital letter to represent)

2. Recessive alleles- only expressed if have two copies of recessive present (use small-case letter to represent) 3. Homozygous dominant = TT 4. Heterozygous = Tt 5. Homozygous recessive = tt

D. Alleles and Phenotypes 1. Both homozygous dominant and heterozygous genotypes yield a dominant phenotype. 2. Most traits occur in a range and do not follow simple dominant-recessive patterns

V. Traits and Probability (6. 5) A. Punnett squares illustrate genetic crosses 1. Used to predict possible genotypes resulting from a cross a. Axes of grid represent possible gamete genotypes of each parents b. Boxes show genotypes of offspring c. Can determine ratio of genotypes in each generation

Punnett Square parents gametes Dominant Allele Possible offspring Recessive allele homozygous heterozygous

B. Monohybrid cross involves one trait 1. Homozygous dominant X Homozygous recessive Genotypic ratio 100% Ff Phenotypic ratio 100% purple

2. Heterozygous X Heterozygous Genotypic ratio 1: 2: 1 Phenotypic ratio 3: 1

3. Heterozygous X Homozygous recessive Genotypic ratio 1: 1 Phenotypic ratio 1: 1

C. Test Cross- a cross between organism with an unknown genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype

D. Dihybrid cross involves two traits 1. Mendel also conducted dihybrid crosses- wondered if both traits would always appear together or if they would be expressed independently of each other 2. Mendel discovered phenotypic ratio in F 2 generation as always 9: 3: 3: 1 regardless of combination traits he used

3. Mendel’s dihybrid crosses led to his second law, the law of independent assortment. 4. The law of independent assortment states that allele pairs separate independently of each other during meiosis

E. Heredity patterns can be calculated with probability 1. probability - the likelihood that a particular event will happen 2. Probability applies to random events such as meiosis and fertilization

VI. Meiosis and Genetic Variation (6. 6) A. Sexual reproduction creates unique gene combinations 1. Sexual reproduction creates unique combination of genes a. independent assortment of chromosomes in meiosis b. random fertilization of gametes

2. 223 possible sperm or egg cells produced 223 X 223 = about 70 trillion different combinations of chromosomes

B. Crossing over during meiosis increases genetic diversity 1. crossing over - exchange of chromosome segments between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of Meiosis I 2. Results in new combination of genes

C. Linked genes - genes located on the same chromosome inherited together. 1. Closer together they are high chance of inheriting together 2. If genes far apart, crossing-over may separate them 3. Gene linkage used to build genetic map of many species

Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study a. flowering. b. gamete formation. c. the inheritance of traits. d. cross-pollination.

Offspring that result from crosses between true-breeding parents with different traits a. are true-breeding. b. make up the F 2 generation. c. make up the parental generation. d. are called hybrids.

What are Mendel’s factors called today? a. alleles b. traits c. genes d. characters

Mendel concluded that traits are a. not inherited by offspring. b. inherited through the passing of factors from parents to offspring. c. determined by dominant factors only. determined by recessive factors only.

The principle of dominance states that a. alleles are dominant. b. alleles are recessive. c. some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. d. alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

When Mendel crossed true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all the offspring were tall because a. the allele for tall plants is recessive. b. the allele for short plants is dominant. c. the allele for tall plants is dominant. d. they were true-breeding like their parents.

If a pea plant has a recessive allele for green peas, it will produce a. green peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas. b. both green peas and yellow peas if it also has a dominant allele for yellow peas. c. green peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for yellow peas. d. yellow peas if it does not also have a dominant allele for green peas.

When you flip a coin, what is the probability that it will come up tails? a. 1/2 b. 1/4 c. 1/8 d. 1

The principles of probability can be used to a. predict the traits of the offspring produced by genetic crosses. b. determine the actual outcomes of genetic crosses. c. predict the traits of the parents used in genetic crosses. d. decide which organisms are best to use in genetic crosses.

Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait are said to be a. hybrid. b. homozygous. c. heterozygous. dominant.

In the Punnett square shown in Figure 11 -1, which of the following is true about the offspring resulting from the cross? a. About half are expected to be short. b. All are expected to be short. c. About half are expected to be tall. d. All are expected to be tall.

In the Punnett square shown in below, which of the following is true about the offspring resulting from the cross? a. About half are expected to be short. b. All are expected to be short. c. About half are expected to be tall. d. All are expected to be tall.

What does a Punnett square NOT show? a. all possible results of a genetic cross b. the genotypes of the offspring c. the alleles in the gametes of each parent d. the actual results of a genetic cross

If you made a Punnett square showing Mendel’s cross between true-breeding tall plants with truebreeding short plants, the square would show that the offspring had a. the genotype of one of the parents. b. a phenotype that was different from that of both parents. c. a genotype that was different from that of both parents. d. the genotype of both parents.

What principle states that during gamete formation genes for different traits separate without influencing each other’s inheritance? a. principle of dominance b. principle of independent assortment c. principle of probabilities d. principle of segregation

The Punnett square in Figure above shows that the gene for pea shape and the gene for pea color a. assort independently. b. are linked. c. have the same alleles. d. are always homozygous.

How many different allele combinations would be found in the gametes produced by a pea plant whose genotype was Rr. YY? a. 2 b. 4 c. 8 d. 16

Situations in which one allele for a gene is not completely dominant over another allele for that gene are called a. multiple alleles. b. incomplete dominance. c. polygenic inheritance. d. multiple genes.

A cross of a red cow with a white bull produces all roan offspring. This type of inheritance is known as a. incomplete dominance. b. polygenic inheritance. codominance. d. multiple alleles.

Mendel’s principles of genetics apply to a. plants only. b. animals only. c. pea plants only. d. all organisms.

If an organism’s diploid number is 12, its haploid number is a. 12. b. 6. c. 24. d. 3.

Gametes are produced by the process of a. mitosis. b. meiosis. crossing-over. d. replication.

What is shown in figure above? a. independent assortment b. b. anaphase I of meiosis c. crossing-over d. replication

What is shown in figure above? a. independent assortment b. anaphase I of meiosis c. crossing-over d. replication

Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in the formation of a. diploid cells. b. haploid cells. c. 2 N daughter cells. d. body cells.

Linked genes a. are never separated. b. assort independently. c. are on the same chromosome. d. are always recessive.

If two genes are on the same chromosome and rarely assort independently, a. crossing-over never occurs between the genes. b. crossing-over always occurs between the genes. c. the genes are probably located far apart from each other. d. the genes are probably located close to each other.