Research Methods in English Language Learning and Teaching

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Research Methods in English Language Learning and Teaching (EDUC 2101) 1 st Semester (2015

Research Methods in English Language Learning and Teaching (EDUC 2101) 1 st Semester (2015 -2016) Instructor: Dr. Sadek Firwana

What is research? Research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three elements

What is research? Research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three elements or components: (1) Problem, question or hypothesis (2) Data (3) Analysis and interpretation.

Why should teachers do research? Benefits of doing research for teachers For teachers, a

Why should teachers do research? Benefits of doing research for teachers For teachers, a primary reason for doing research is to become more effective teachers. Research contributes to more effective teaching, not by offering definitive answers to pedagogical questions, but rather by providing new insights into the teaching and learning` process.

Reasons for not doing research In spite of these benefits, there a variety of

Reasons for not doing research In spite of these benefits, there a variety of reasons why teachers may be hesitant or unable to undertake research.

Various meanings and purposes of research 1. Exploring the Ideas In order to address

Various meanings and purposes of research 1. Exploring the Ideas In order to address some of the obstacles you face in doing research, begin by identifying a specific area of research you are interested in researching. Describe in as much detail as possible what you would like to investigate and in what context you would undertake this study. Then list the personal and professional obstacles you face in undertaking this research.

Research: What? • Strictly speaking anything in language teaching. • General areas: – –

Research: What? • Strictly speaking anything in language teaching. • General areas: – – – Language policy Syllabus, curriculum Materials, textbooks, etc. Technology Methodology Specific skills Teaching of grammar, vocabulary, etc. Language for specific purposes Culture Motivation, affective factors Etc.

1. Problem/Question 2. Formulate a Hypothesis 3. Experiment 4. Collect and Analyze Results 5.

1. Problem/Question 2. Formulate a Hypothesis 3. Experiment 4. Collect and Analyze Results 5. Conclusion 6. Communicate the Results

1. Problem/Question: Problem/Question Develop a question or problem that can be solved through investigation.

1. Problem/Question: Problem/Question Develop a question or problem that can be solved through investigation.

2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Formulate a Hypothesis Predict a possible answer to the problem

2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Formulate a Hypothesis Predict a possible answer to the problem or question. Example: If students are exposed more to English, then their fluency will increase.

3. Experiment: 3. Experiment • Develop and follow a procedure. The outcome must be

3. Experiment: 3. Experiment • Develop and follow a procedure. The outcome must be measurable (quantifiable).

4. Collect and Analyze Results: 4. Collect and Analyze Results • Modify the procedure

4. Collect and Analyze Results: 4. Collect and Analyze Results • Modify the procedure if needed. • Confirm the results by retesting. • Include tables, graphs, and photographs.

5. Conclusion: Conclusion • Include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis. •

5. Conclusion: Conclusion • Include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis. • Make recommendations for further study and possible improvements to the procedure.

6. Communicate the Results: Communicate the Results • Be prepared to present the project

6. Communicate the Results: Communicate the Results • Be prepared to present the project to an audience.

What are the major types of research and how do they differ?

What are the major types of research and how do they differ?

What are the major types of research and how do they differ? Basic vs.

What are the major types of research and how do they differ? Basic vs. applied research Basic research Applied research Ø Its purpose is to acquire Ø It deals with human and societal knowledge for the sake problems in the hopes of finding of knowledge. solutions to real-world problems. Ø Ø Its main goal is to Ø It is more limited in its questions Ø contribute to a fuller and conclusions. understanding of the world.

What are the major types of research and how do they differ? Basic vs.

What are the major types of research and how do they differ? Basic vs. applied research Basic research Applied research Ø It is often undertaken in Ø It does not attempt to define a disciplines like biology, theory of language learning that physics, astronomy, and accounts for all language geology. learners, rather it sets forth Ø findings that apply to a particular Ø time, place, and context. Ø It is used by researchers who want to verify theories of their discipline.

Types of data used by basic and applied research Primary vs. Secondary Data Primary

Types of data used by basic and applied research Primary vs. Secondary Data Primary Data Secondary Data Ø In using primary data, Ø In using secondary data, researchers gather examine what others have discovered original data to answer about a particular topic. For example, a particular research if teachers want to know about the Ø question. When advantages and disadvantages of researchers gather first using peer review in a writing class, Ø hand data, “the they can investigate what others have outcome is knowledge written on the topic. nobody had before” Ø Literature reviews are an example of secondary data.

Fundamentals in research Research should be able to meet the tests of: • Validity

Fundamentals in research Research should be able to meet the tests of: • Validity => • Reliability => The "truthfulness" of a measure; a valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure. A measurement is reliable when it is consistent; when it gives the same results when repeated

Exercises on Research Methods 1. To be considered true research, it must:

Exercises on Research Methods 1. To be considered true research, it must:

Exercises on Research Methods 2. A primary function of the methodology is to:

Exercises on Research Methods 2. A primary function of the methodology is to:

Exercises on Research Methods 3. A well-designed and well-conducted study:

Exercises on Research Methods 3. A well-designed and well-conducted study:

Exercises on Research Methods 4. Reading the professional literature in the field of interest

Exercises on Research Methods 4. Reading the professional literature in the field of interest _____:

Exercises on Research Methods 5. A ____ is a specific mechanism or strategy the

Exercises on Research Methods 5. A ____ is a specific mechanism or strategy the researcher uses to collect, manipulate, or interpret data.

Exercises on Research Methods 5. A ____ is a specific mechanism or strategy the

Exercises on Research Methods 5. A ____ is a specific mechanism or strategy the researcher uses to collect, manipulate, or interpret data. • research tool

Exercises on Research Methods 6. Research methodology refers to _____:

Exercises on Research Methods 6. Research methodology refers to _____:

Exercises on Research Methods 7. Research problems should ____:

Exercises on Research Methods 7. Research problems should ____:

Exercises on Research Methods 8. The researcher analyzed data and found that explicit teaching

Exercises on Research Methods 8. The researcher analyzed data and found that explicit teaching of reading strategies improves students' performance on standardized tests. In this study, explicit teaching of reading strategies is _____.

Exercises on Research Methods 9. The researcher's study suggested that elementary students who are

Exercises on Research Methods 9. The researcher's study suggested that elementary students who are exposed to English for 2 hours a day are more likely to develop their speaking skill than students who are exposed less to English. In this study student‘s speaking skill is ____.

Exercises on Research Methods 10. A good research plan should include _______:

Exercises on Research Methods 10. A good research plan should include _______:

Exercises on Research Methods 11. A teacher researcher has been facing some problem teaching

Exercises on Research Methods 11. A teacher researcher has been facing some problem teaching one specific class English. In his attempt to solve this problem he has been observing and gathering data that may help him overcome the problem. For him these data constitute _____.

Exercises on Research Methods 12. A teacher researcher wrote an article about a research

Exercises on Research Methods 12. A teacher researcher wrote an article about a research project concerning discipline problems in English classes and ways of overcoming them. This article was widely read by other teachers who have been facing similar problems. For those teachers, the teacher researcher's article constitutes _____:

Exercises on Research Methods 13. Disadvantages of questionnaires include ______:

Exercises on Research Methods 13. Disadvantages of questionnaires include ______:

Exercises on Research Methods 14. In descriptive research, the researcher typically studies a______ and

Exercises on Research Methods 14. In descriptive research, the researcher typically studies a______ and then draws conclusions about the______.

Exercises on Research Methods 15. Experimental research differs from descriptive research in that it:

Exercises on Research Methods 15. Experimental research differs from descriptive research in that it:

Exercises on Research Methods 16. In experimental design, the variable that is manipulated is

Exercises on Research Methods 16. In experimental design, the variable that is manipulated is the _______:

Designs in educational experimentation There are several different kinds of experimental design, for example:

Designs in educational experimentation There are several different kinds of experimental design, for example: • the controlled experiment in laboratory conditions (the ‘true’ experiment): two or more groups

Designs in educational experimentation • the field or quasi-experiment in the natural setting rather

Designs in educational experimentation • the field or quasi-experiment in the natural setting rather than the laboratory, but where variables are isolated, controlled and manipulated. • the natural experiment in which it is not possible to isolate and control variables.

Checklist for conducting research Questions to guide the design of a research project: Checklist:

Checklist for conducting research Questions to guide the design of a research project: Checklist: 1. Is the question worth investigating? Is the question feasible? 2. Does the research question imply a strong causal relationship between two or more variables?

Checklist for conducting research Introduction: • What is the purpose of the study? •

Checklist for conducting research Introduction: • What is the purpose of the study? • What are the research questions and hypotheses posed by the study?

Checklist for conducting research Design: • Does the question suggest an experimental or a

Checklist for conducting research Design: • Does the question suggest an experimental or a non-experimental design?

Checklist for conducting research Method: a. What methods are available for investigating the question?

Checklist for conducting research Method: a. What methods are available for investigating the question? b. Which of these are feasible given available resources and expertise?

Checklist for conducting research Method: c. Is it possible to utilize more than one

Checklist for conducting research Method: c. Is it possible to utilize more than one data collection method?

Checklist for conducting research Participants: a. Is the description of the participants adequate? b.

Checklist for conducting research Participants: a. Is the description of the participants adequate? b. Is the method of selection clear?

Checklist for conducting research Materials: a. Is there a description of the tests, questionnaires,

Checklist for conducting research Materials: a. Is there a description of the tests, questionnaires, rating scales etc? c. Is there a description of any equipment?

Checklist for conducting research Results: a. Do they answer the study questions? b. What

Checklist for conducting research Results: a. Do they answer the study questions? b. What are the findings of similar studies? c. Are there any contradictory findings? d. How can these be accounted for? e. What additional questions and suggestions for further research are thrown up by the research?

Research methods • Quantitative (why? Is there a relation between. . . ? )

Research methods • Quantitative (why? Is there a relation between. . . ? ) - use numbers and statistics to see if something you say about the object is true or false (experiments, quasi-experiments, surveys) • Qualitative (how? What kind of? ) - analyze words and images to see what the object is like (interviews, focus groups, observations, case studies) • Mixed - combine both approaches to get the full picture

Research methods in use (examples) • Quantitative – how many students who believed in

Research methods in use (examples) • Quantitative – how many students who believed in their success got an A for a math test? • Qualitative – what do students think is important for doing well in math? What are the students’ beliefs? • Mixed – do students’ beliefs influence their grades? What are the students’ beliefs about their English performance?

Sampling is the way in which you choose participants for your experiments, interviews, surveys

Sampling is the way in which you choose participants for your experiments, interviews, surveys etc. Probability Convenience you carefully search for you invite those representatives of different participants who are groups of population available (time-consuming and costly) (the findings can be biased)

How to choose an interesting question Your research question should be • Up-to-date •

How to choose an interesting question Your research question should be • Up-to-date • Interesting • Manageable

Research questions Quantitative research method 1) Is there a (positive/negative) relationship between X and

Research questions Quantitative research method 1) Is there a (positive/negative) relationship between X and Y? 2) Does X influence Y? 3) What is the prevalence of X among the population? 4) To what extent does X influence Y? 5) Does X affect Y? 6) Does X have effects on Y? 7) Does X have impact on Y? 8) Does X cause Y? 9) Is X the effect of Y? 10) Does X determine Y?

Research questions (continued) Qualitative research method 1) What is the perception of X in

Research questions (continued) Qualitative research method 1) What is the perception of X in Y population? 2) How does X population describe Y? 3) What are the main characteristics of X, as characterized by Y? 4) In what ways is X influenced by Y? 5) What are the most popular means of X? 6) How do the participants perceive their roles in X? 7) What are the main differences between X and Y? 8) What kind of difficulties might influence X? 9) Are the participants satisfied with X? 10) What are the perceived effects of X on Y?

Major Steps in Conducting Research Problem formulation Research design development Data analysis Selection of

Major Steps in Conducting Research Problem formulation Research design development Data analysis Selection of data sources Data collection Conclusion / Report Writing 52

Data collection: Qualitative Research • Observation • Asking primarily openended questions • Scalar items

Data collection: Qualitative Research • Observation • Asking primarily openended questions • Scalar items seldom used • Unobtrusive data collection • Data: words, pictures, behavior • Greater ethical issues Quantitative Research • Asking primarily closedended questions • Scalar items primarily used • Statistical databases • Data: numbers • Fewer ethical issues

Qualitative Research Designs In-depth Interviews Focus Groups Observation Qualitative Data Action Research Grounded Theory

Qualitative Research Designs In-depth Interviews Focus Groups Observation Qualitative Data Action Research Grounded Theory Case Studies

Different Approaches for Data Collection/Data Analysis • • • Experiment Survey Quasi-Experiment Secondary Data

Different Approaches for Data Collection/Data Analysis • • • Experiment Survey Quasi-Experiment Secondary Data Analysis Content Analysis Methods (Archival Analysis ) • Participant Observation • Individual Qualitative Intervie • Focus Group Discussion

Qualitative Research Methods Examples: Participant Observation Ethnography Individual Qualitative Interview • Textual Analysis •

Qualitative Research Methods Examples: Participant Observation Ethnography Individual Qualitative Interview • Textual Analysis • Focus Group Discussion • •

Key features of Qualitative Research 1. Collection primarily of qualitative rather than quantitative data

Key features of Qualitative Research 1. Collection primarily of qualitative rather than quantitative data Qualitative methods emphasize observations about natural behavior and artifacts that capture social life as it is experienced by the participants rather than the numerical representations of the categories predetermined by the researcher. 2. Exploratory research question. Qualitative researchers typically begin their projects seeking to discover what people think and how they act, and why, in some social setting. 3. Inductive reasoning (Reasoning that moves from more specific kinds of statement to more general ones) Only after immersing themselves to many observations, do qualitative researchers try to develop general principles to account their observations.

Ways to collect qualitative data 1. Participant Observation 2. Ethnography 3. Individual Interview a)

Ways to collect qualitative data 1. Participant Observation 2. Ethnography 3. Individual Interview a) Semi-structured interview b) Unstructured interview 4. Textual Analysis 5. Focus Group Discussion

Individual Interviews Semi-structured interview • Interviews with an interview guide containing primarily open-ended questions

Individual Interviews Semi-structured interview • Interviews with an interview guide containing primarily open-ended questions that can be modified for each interview. Unstructured interview • The interviewer starts with only a general sense of the topics to be discussed and creates questions as the interaction proceeds.

Interview Guide • A list of topics to cover and the order in which

Interview Guide • A list of topics to cover and the order in which to cover them that can be used to guide less structured interviews. • The questions must be judged its appropriateness for each interview, and may be re-ordered, and re-worded if necessary.

Types of Questions Open-ended questions vs. Close-ended question Open-ended • “How would you describe

Types of Questions Open-ended questions vs. Close-ended question Open-ended • “How would you describe your performance in English classes”? Closed-ended • “Do you think the new your performance in English classes good? ” Probes Questions that allow the interviewee to further expand on their earlier comments. • • “Can you elaborate on what you mean by. . . ” “Why is that so? ”

 Focus Groups • A type of group interview. • Focuses on group interaction

Focus Groups • A type of group interview. • Focuses on group interaction on a topic selected by the researcher. • Ideally 4 - 12 participants. • The interaction is directed by a moderator who asks questions and keeps the discussion on the topic.

Different Purposes for Research • Pure Research : Discovery of knowledge for the sake

Different Purposes for Research • Pure Research : Discovery of knowledge for the sake of knowledge. • Applied Research: Conducted with some practical purposes in mind. • • Exploratory Research: Conducted in order to explore the phenomena. Explanatory Research : Conducted in order to explain the phenomena. • Evaluation Research: Conducted in order to develop and “evaluate” programs.

Evaluation research • Research specifically designed to assess the impact of a specific program,

Evaluation research • Research specifically designed to assess the impact of a specific program, policy or legal change. • Often the focus of an evaluation is whether the program, policy, or law has succeeded in effecting intentional or planned change.

Collecting Data From People • Opinions, perceptions, stories – Use interviews, focus groups, surveys

Collecting Data From People • Opinions, perceptions, stories – Use interviews, focus groups, surveys • Only people can tell you what they think or believe – But what people say they do is not necessarily what they actually do

Collecting Data From People • Risk of bias: social desirability response – Say what

Collecting Data From People • Risk of bias: social desirability response – Say what they think researcher wants to hear or what they believe is socially appropriate – Especially true if asking about socially stigmatized or illegal behaviors • Remember: hypothetical questions are not necessarily a reliable predictor of actual behavior

General Guidelines • When gathering data from people: – Keep it simple, clear, easy,

General Guidelines • When gathering data from people: – Keep it simple, clear, easy, short – Respect respondents time and intelligence – Tell them how they were selected and why their participation is important

Option: Closed-ended Questions • To what extent, if at all, has this workshop been

Option: Closed-ended Questions • To what extent, if at all, has this workshop been useful in helping you to learn how to enhance your students’ speaking skills? � � � Little or no extent Some extent Moderate extent Great extent Very great extent No opinion

Advantages of Closed-ended Questions • Best when very specific data is required • Results

Advantages of Closed-ended Questions • Best when very specific data is required • Results are reliable: everyone was asked the same question and answers • Easy to analyze

Option: Semi-structured Question • In what ways, if at any, has this workshop been

Option: Semi-structured Question • In what ways, if at any, has this workshop been useful to you? – They then answer in their own words • Sometimes it is set by first asking a Yes or No question and then followed up with a probe: “Can you tell me more” kind of probe. – Did you find the workshop useful? • If yes, “what was most useful? ” • If no: “what would have made it useful to you? ”

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions: • Capture participants’ views in their own words • Enable

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions: • Capture participants’ views in their own words • Enable clarification of questions if participant does not understand • Used in focus groups • Often useful in the early phases of a research project when researchers are not sure what it is they want to know and/or how to ask the questions

Face-to-face Options • Interviews – Dynamic process of gathering information – Personal interaction between

Face-to-face Options • Interviews – Dynamic process of gathering information – Personal interaction between people – Can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured • Focus groups – Dynamic process of gathering information – Small group interaction (6 -12 people) – Semi-structured

In-Person Interviews • Interviews are most useful when: – Other methods, such as questionnaires,

In-Person Interviews • Interviews are most useful when: – Other methods, such as questionnaires, do not make sense – When literacy is an issue – When a personal interaction is desired – When questions are not too personal

In-Person Interviews • Interviews are most useful when: – the survey is too complicated

In-Person Interviews • Interviews are most useful when: – the survey is too complicated to ensure it can be completed correctly as a selfadministered questionnaire – At the beginning of a project when the issues and questions are still being determined 74

In-person Interviews • Can last one hour or more – Allow in-depth exploration of

In-person Interviews • Can last one hour or more – Allow in-depth exploration of a topic – Can cover more complex issues than a survey – Interviewers will need to adjust the questions to fit the time available • Some questions will have to be dropped • It is possible to ask for additional time

Interviewer Skills • • Clarity of purpose Good communication skills The ability to establish

Interviewer Skills • • Clarity of purpose Good communication skills The ability to establish rapport Accept whatever they say with empathy and without judgment 76

Interviewer Skills • Be aware of cultural norms: eye contact, direct questions, gender issues

Interviewer Skills • Be aware of cultural norms: eye contact, direct questions, gender issues • Be aware of body language or verbal cues: – You might think you are signaling that you are listening but interviewee might see them as clues to the “correct answer”

Developing the Interview Guide • Define purpose – Link to your research objectives –

Developing the Interview Guide • Define purpose – Link to your research objectives – Do not ask irrelevant questions – Time constraints force choices • Essential versus nice to know • Decide degree of structure required – Interviews can be highly structured, semistructured or a combination

Developing the Interview Guide • Draft interview questions – Sequence questions so they flow

Developing the Interview Guide • Draft interview questions – Sequence questions so they flow smoothly from question to question – Start with easy questions, move to the heart of the interview and end with demographic questions – Balance: if you ask about what they think are the major supports, follow with what they think are the major barriers

Developing the Interview Guide • Avoid asking “why” questions, if that might be seen

Developing the Interview Guide • Avoid asking “why” questions, if that might be seen as aggressive or critical • Pre-test the interview guide – Conduct interview in as close to real setting – But ask tester for feedback at the end of the pretest • What worked, what did not, suggestions?

Conducting Interviews • Let interviewees know: – – – Why they are being interviewed

Conducting Interviews • Let interviewees know: – – – Why they are being interviewed How they were selected How the data will be used Whether it is confidential How long the interview will take Whether you might want to talk to them again

Conducting Interviews • Try to pick a time and place that is quiet and

Conducting Interviews • Try to pick a time and place that is quiet and free of distractions. • Ideally, have a second person help take notes. • Tape recording: get permission. – Might want to ask when setting the appointment. – Test equipment before the interview – Have a plan B in case of technology glitch

Conducting Interviews • Stick to your interview guide – If asking close-ended questions, ask

Conducting Interviews • Stick to your interview guide – If asking close-ended questions, ask exactly the way written – Have a prepared answer for likely questions and requests for clarifications • Pre-tests can help identify likely questions

Conducting Interviews • If asking open-ended questions, go with the flow of the interview

Conducting Interviews • If asking open-ended questions, go with the flow of the interview guide, not too directive – Sometimes people do not want to answer a question; respect that and move to next question – Sometimes people may answer questions before you ask – If you think you’ve gotten the answer, you can confirm or skip the question

Conducting Interviews • Take good notes without distracting from the conversation. – Write while

Conducting Interviews • Take good notes without distracting from the conversation. – Write while maintaining eye contact. – Write key words or phrases, not verbatim. – But if someone is saying something you want to capture, it is OK to ask them to repeat it or to finish what you are writing before asking the next question—especially if you are not taping the interview.

Conducting Interviews • Share interview questions ahead of time. – No surprises • Offer

Conducting Interviews • Share interview questions ahead of time. – No surprises • Offer to share a summary of what you understand from the interview. – This might be especially useful to give the interviewee a greater feeling of control. – It might also provide more information • Thank you note afterwards.

Writing Up the Interview • Every word is valuable. • Take time to write

Writing Up the Interview • Every word is valuable. • Take time to write up your notes as carefully and in-depth as possible. • It is best to do at least a brief clean-up of notes immediately afterwards (leave an hour between interviews). • Write up full notes within a day of the interview: memory decay sets in quickly.

Exercise • Develop a short interview guide to find out about the people in

Exercise • Develop a short interview guide to find out about the people in the class: who they are and why they are taking this class? • Individually, write up 5 open-ended questions • Form pairs and interview each other • Write up your notes and turn them at the next class • Discussion: what questions were the same? What questions were different?

Focus Groups • A small group of people are brought together to discuss specific

Focus Groups • A small group of people are brought together to discuss specific topics of interest to the researchers. • The group process tends to elicit more information than individual interviews because there is crossconversation and discussion. – Different views can be explored.

Elements of Focus Groups • • Small groups (6 -12 people) Comfortable environment Good

Elements of Focus Groups • • Small groups (6 -12 people) Comfortable environment Good facilitation essential Facilitator and note-taker Tape record if possible Ask few open-ended questions How many? Until no new themes emerge

Selection of Participants • Overall, they should reflect diverse groups and views. • Unbiased,

Selection of Participants • Overall, they should reflect diverse groups and views. • Unbiased, choices should make sense • But individual focus groups may have to be homogeneous.

How Many Focus Groups? • No rules • Generally, do until no new issues

How Many Focus Groups? • No rules • Generally, do until no new issues emerge or common themes are consistent (usually occurs between 3 -6 focus groups). • However, researchers may want to include more groups to ensure that all groups or areas were included.

Process: • Introduction: – Purpose of focus groups – Why they were selected –

Process: • Introduction: – Purpose of focus groups – Why they were selected – How the information will be used – The ground rules – Overview of the process – If tape recording, explain why

Ground Rules • “What is said here, stays here. ” • Everyone is encouraged

Ground Rules • “What is said here, stays here. ” • Everyone is encouraged to participate but not everyone has to answer every question. • Respect different viewpoints. • There are no right or wrong answers. • Only one person speaks at a time.

Example of Focus Group Questions What did you learn from the English course that

Example of Focus Group Questions What did you learn from the English course that is most helpful to you outside the classroom? What were the greatest challenges in studying this English course? What should the English language program teach so that graduates are prepared well to be good users of English?

Facilitator/moderator • Know the script so focus group appears conversational. – Do not read

Facilitator/moderator • Know the script so focus group appears conversational. – Do not read the script. • Make sure everyone is heard. – Ask: “What do other people think? ” – Ask: “We have heard from a few people, do others have the same views or different views? ”

Skilled Facilitation • Active listening. • Accepting all views while managing differences of opinion.

Skilled Facilitation • Active listening. • Accepting all views while managing differences of opinion. – “So we have different perspectives. ” • Probing for elaboration. – “Tell me more. ”

Skilled Facilitation • Managing time. – Closing off discussion and moving to next topic.

Skilled Facilitation • Managing time. – Closing off discussion and moving to next topic. • Invisible: say as little as possible – Let conversation flow across the table with minimal direction. • Keep your personal views outside the room. – Leave ego at the door.

Process: • • Have participants introduce themselves. First question: easy, ice-breaker. Ask main questions:

Process: • • Have participants introduce themselves. First question: easy, ice-breaker. Ask main questions: the heart of the resesarch. Last questions: – Summary question: “What is the most important thing that was said here that we should take with us? ” – Some facilitators put answers on flip charts – Ask: “Any last comments? ”

Focus Groups: Initial Write-ups • Do not over schedule: 2 focus groups per day

Focus Groups: Initial Write-ups • Do not over schedule: 2 focus groups per day is plenty for one moderator • Build in time to do the initial write-up • Write up your impressions immediately after focus group: major issues and major points of discussion. • You may also want to capture anything unusual that happened during the focus group. • Compare with your partner.

Working With Audio-Tapes • Ideally, the focus group tape will be transcribed verbatim. –

Working With Audio-Tapes • Ideally, the focus group tape will be transcribed verbatim. – These transcripts are the datasets • However, if verbatim transcription is not possible, listen to the tape afterwards while writing in-depth notes. – You will be surprised how much you did not hear during the actual focus group.

Exercise: Focus Group • You have been asked to design a focus group to

Exercise: Focus Group • You have been asked to design a focus group to learn what your students think are important characteristics that they should learn and what is important to them in terms of the enhancement of their language learning. • Working in small groups, develop 5 questions that would be appropriate for a focus group. • Share with class.

Focus Groups • Advantages: – Relatively quick – May be less expensive (staff time)

Focus Groups • Advantages: – Relatively quick – May be less expensive (staff time) than in-depth interviews – Provides flexibility to make changes in process – Can examine different perspectives – Fun!!

How: Methods (Tools? ) Means of gathering data with certain procedures: • Observation (sound,

How: Methods (Tools? ) Means of gathering data with certain procedures: • Observation (sound, video, note-taking, material handed out) • Survey/Feedback: – questionnaire, – interview (formal or informal) • • • Conversation analysis Tests Verbal reports Learner diaries Ethnographic methods e. g. observation (multiple sources of data) and participation by researcher Case study Linguistic survey Corpus-based research Text-based research Etc.

Research: Who? • Researchers: – Teachers – Learners (why not? ) • Being researched:

Research: Who? • Researchers: – Teachers – Learners (why not? ) • Being researched: – Learners (individuals, grades, groups: age, proficiency, etc. ) – Teachers – All teaching material – Teaching situation – Texts ---> combinations possible or necessary

Research: Steps of research • • • Determine general research area/topic Do survey of

Research: Steps of research • • • Determine general research area/topic Do survey of literature, i. e. research the topic Formulate research question or hypothesis Determine aim of research Describe theoretical basis Determine research design: – Methodology – Tools • Collect data • Describe process and results • Discussion and Conclusion

Pilot study or prototype • Useful before a large research project to test feasibility

Pilot study or prototype • Useful before a large research project to test feasibility of hypothesis, planned methods, use of technology, etc. • It is much smaller study than eventual project.

Tip on collecting sources • Any photocopy you make or any good statement you

Tip on collecting sources • Any photocopy you make or any good statement you write down, ALWAYS write the source down, i. e. where you found it. • That means: 1. author, 2. date of publication, 3. title of book/journal article/website/…, place of publication and publisher (for book) OR title of journal, edition and number, page(s) (for journal) OR URL, date viewed (for website)

In closing … As researcher be aware of: • your own assumptions on language

In closing … As researcher be aware of: • your own assumptions on language learning and teaching • the exact aim of research • boundaries of research (or put differently: what you are NOT researching) • choosing appropriate methods for the research • the fact that research of language teaching and learning is about humans! “Protect” them and let them “benefit”. (Mc. Kay 2006, viii)

Research Design Descriptive Design A descriptive research design describes some phenomenon at a specific

Research Design Descriptive Design A descriptive research design describes some phenomenon at a specific point in time. A descriptive study needs a clearly defined phenomenon of interest (e. g. , teachers' knowledge of literacy development) that is systematically and precisely measured.

Research Design Causal Comparative Design Causal comparative designs examine the effect of an independent

Research Design Causal Comparative Design Causal comparative designs examine the effect of an independent variable that cannot be manipulated by the researcher (i. e. , gender, socioeconomic status, age, etc. ) on a dependent variable.