Imperial Powers and Decolonization Southern Africa Nelson Mandela

Imperial Powers and Decolonization Southern Africa: Nelson Mandela and the Fight for Freedom (1961 – 1994) (1918 – 2013) April 7 -- 10

South Africa

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1960 -61: Regional Context • Rhodesia feeling early African resistance: would declare UDI in 1965 [Case Study: Rhodesia] • Mozambique: ‘renewed colonialism’, continued use forced labour led to… • within two years: Liberation War launched by FRELIMO [Case Study: Mozambique] • South Africa argued: it was being ‘isolated’ by threat of Communist regimes on its borders

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1960 s: domestic context • response: ‘Grand Apartheid’ • government escalated ‘group areas’, other racially based legislation to ‘separate development’ • established ‘homelands’ (Bantustans), each specific to a single ‘tribe’, each administered locally • homelands to become independent countries

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Verwoerd : ‘Apartheid would bring equal rights to all – each in their own part of the country’ •

South Africa: fighting for Freedom ANC turned to violence: formed armed wing ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ (MK – ‘Spear of the Nation): [see Umkhonto we Sizwe - ‘We are at War!’, Add’l Rdgs]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Government Response: • 1964: Mandela, other ANC leaders captured, tried for treason • imprisoned on Robben Island • ANC labeled Communist, Mandela ‘terrorist’: challenged former, admitted latter as ‘necessary’ • ‘stage’: publicizing ANC battle, ideology

Nelson Mandela spent 25 years here, 1964 -1989

Nelson Mandela in Prison (n. d. )

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Battle Against Apartheid in Exile Begins • difficult moving soldiers in, out South Africa • initial bases Zambia; after 1975 also Mozambique • sought financial support in West: difficult as many accepted profiling of ‘Communist’ • still: ANC more organized, more successful than PAC (who declined in importance)

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Two decades ‘forced decolonization’ began: 1970 s: • ‘homelands-to-independence’: failure • more than 3 million Africans would have become ‘foreigners’ in South Africa • rights only in ‘homeland’ with ‘tribal’ passport

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1970 s: Key Changes • emergence first generation to pass through ‘Bantu Education’ (from 1950 s/60 s) • not accepting life of servitude: formed SASO • leader Stephen Biko: articulated powerful ideology ‘Black Consciousness’ • ‘black’ included Africans, Asians, Coloureds

South Africa: fighting for Freedom “…Change the name and the story applies to you. The dignity of the Black Man has been restored in Mozambique, and so shall it be here. Black must rule. We shall drive them [‘whites’] to the sea]. Long live Azania. Revolution!! [Samora] Machel will help! Away with Vorster Ban! We are for Afro black Power!! Viva Frelimo. Power !!! We shall overcome. ” [quoted in Price, Aparthed State in Crisis, 52]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Biko ‘banned’ 1973 • by 1975: SASO banned from most campuses • 1975 -6: Biko arrested, tried • used trial to spread message within South Africa and internationally: ‘Africans’ need to reject idea that all that is good, is ‘white’ • Need psychological liberation

South Africa: fighting for Freedom “I think basically Black Consciousness refers itself to the black man and to his situation, and I think the black man is subject to two forces in this country. He is first of all oppressed by an external world through institutionalized machinery, through laws that restrict him from doing certain things, through heavy work conditions, through poor education, these are all external to him and secondly, and this we regard as the most important, the black man in himself has developed a certain state of alienation, he rejects himself, precisely because he attaches the meaning white to all that is good…” [Steve Biko, in court, September 1974; BBC Story of Africa]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Death in detention 1977 sparked outrage around world: • a new generation was willing to die for freedom: Steve Biko became one of many

BC poster (above) Biko’s Grave (right)

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1976 SOWETO: • government reinforced necessity of learning/instructing in Afrikaans in all schools • many had been teaching in English, now forced to add Afrikaans: problem for teachers • Students: Afrikaans seen as language of ‘oppressors’

South Africa: fighting for Freedom In township of SOWETO, hundreds of school children protested • fired on by police, several deaths • reactions from other students, township residents: government buildings burned

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Protests spread throughout country: tear-gas, bullets in response • world looking on • government response ‘why do they walk with upraised fists? Surely this is a sign of the Communist Party!’ • 174 killed at SOWETO, hundreds more over following months: government did not back down

South Africa: fighting for Freedom • parents became involved as they had not been since passive resistance 1950 s • impact began to be felt on stock-market Perhaps Apartheid could be ‘decolonized’ after all!

SOWETO

South Africa: Fighting for Freedom 1980 s: dominated by rise of ‘black-on-black’ violence • ANC/PAC still in exile • 1983: emergence United Democratic Front -- umbrella organization representing community organizations, some national groups • 1985: emergence Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU)

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Inkatha: politicization of the Zulu • ‘cultural’ society, largest single ethnic group leader: Mangosothu Buthelezi • previously ANC (youth league): rejected decision to use violence in 1960 s • 1970 s, 80 s: strategy -- work with government, increase power for Africans • but rejected independence for Zululand

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1980 s: escalation of violence • ANC ‘supporters’ (most of UDF) against Inkatha • former accused latter of ‘government support’, weakening resistance movement • targeted ethnic violence in townships: Zulu migrants in hostels, ‘neck-lacing’ of informers • culture of violence, intimidation, fear

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Government lost control: • some argue deliberately ‘turned state over’ to police: practiced indiscriminate raids, rape • and to Inkatha/Zulu: accusations government funding, inciting Inkatha violence • although Inkatha denied accusations, ANC stocking arms for major urban warfare

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1986: Government declared State of Emergency • country demonstratively ungovernable • 1987: secret talks began between government and Mandela • Buthelezi feared power sharing ‘deal’ that would exclude him: violence escalated

Opposition Becomes Public, including Media Censorship

“State of… EMERGENCY!”

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Video (excerpt): "Nelson Mandela's Fight for Freedom" (4: 15 - 28: 40 min; full video recommended)

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Wider context: - increasingly effective international demands for divestment, boycotting South African goods - economy beginning to ‘hurt’

South Africa: fighting for Freedom • Involvement in wars Angola (conscripted white South Africans), and Mozambique (backing RENAMO): expensive!! • Doubts that military service across borders really about protecting society from Communism surfacing among whites -- very publicly!

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1989 ‘the wall came down’ (Berlin): • symbolic, real end to ‘communist’ USSR • pretense of ‘protecting democracy’ against communist southern Africa undermined • led to: Pres. De Klerk’s famous 1990 ‘State of the Union’ address [see ‘De Klerk Speech’, Add’l Rdgs]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Stunned the Nation (no one forewarned): • announced ‘de-banning’ ANC and other political groups currently illegal • announced need to ‘take lead in developing Africa, working with African leaders’ (almost echoed Mac. Millan’s 1960 ‘Wind of Change’ speech) Most Unexpected and Controversial: Announced imminent freeing Nelson Mandela!

… Nelson Mandela & Walter Sisulu, together again in Freedom (below). Nelson Mandela and Walter Sisulu, Robben Island (above)

Feb. 11, 1990 [see ‘Mandela’s Address, Add’l Rdgs]

• ANC supporters outside Victor Verster prison waiting to greet Nelson Mandela[ Nelson Mandela and the rise of the ANC. (London: Bloomsbury) 189. ]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom “The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue. ” Called for: • freeing all, not only some, political prisoners • end to white monopoly political power • fundamental restructuring political, economic systems • addressing inequalities of apartheid: Full Democracy!

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1992: - negotiated peace arranged (sticking point had been disarmament of ANC!) [de Klerk (left); Mandela (right)]

South Africa: fighting for Freedom 1990 -1994: Negotiations continued with the government, leading towards democratic elections Key pillars of Apartheid removed: - Land Acts of 1913 and 1936 - Group Areas Act of 1950 - Population Registration Act of 1950

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Transition Period: • Violent conflict increased between ANC, Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP – now self-presenting as viable political opponent) • party continued to receive military, logistical, financial support from former apartheid regime

South Africa: fighting for Freedom Transition Period: • Inter-group conflict daily in townships, on commuter trains • more than 15, 000 people died • death toll was more than twice the entire death toll recorded since 1950

Revolution of Goodwill “The IFP has committed itself to becoming the champion of a revolution of goodwill, which spreads throughout the building blocks of our society promoting ndividual and collective dedication to our families, work places and communities. Dr. Mangosuthu Butilezi, President of the IFP The revolution is about building and reconstructing a new country. It is about creating a constant liaison between the government and its communities. And calls for sacrifices, social discipline and hard work. "

South Africa: fighting for Freedom April 1993: Chris Hani assassinated Former Sec. -Gen. South African Communist Party Umkonto we Sizwe

South Africa: fighting for Freedom May 10, 1994: first ever democratic elections • Nelson Mandela ‘terrorist’, now President • Government of National Unity (GNU) • ministers ANC, IFP (Inkatha Freedom Party), Nationalist Party

First (fully) Democratic Election Queue of Voters (Argus, Cape Town) 1994

[see Obituaries in Add’l Rdgs]