What is Decolonization Decolonization the process of becoming

What is Decolonization? • Decolonization: the process of becoming free of colonial status and achieving statehood • Between WWI and WWII, movements for independence begun in earnest in Africa and Asia • Dominance of colonial powers seemed at odds with Allied goals in WWII. • Call for national self-determination – fight for independence. • Empires reluctant to let colonies go.

Steps to African Independence Nationalism grew in the different African countries after WWII. Most Europeans were reluctant to fight to hold onto overseas colonies. African leaders began to use the cry of “Africa for Africans”.

Steps to African Independence African leaders organized political parties and staged strikes & boycotts. Organization of African Unity Formed in 1963 to promote peace and independence Pan-Africanism – calls for the unifying of all of Africa

In the 1950 s & 1960 s, African colonies experienced decolonization & gained independence The first sub-Saharan African colony to gain its independence was Ghana in 1957

Road towards independence • Post-WWII - a focus on self-determination in Europe • Colonialism seemed to contradict the spirit of the Allies fight against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy • Over 200, 000 Africans had fought in Europe and Asia for the Allies’ freedom and democracy – most noticed the contradiction

Effect of WWII • Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s. • Three patterns: q. Violent Revolutions and Civil War (China, Algeria, Angola, Vietnam) q. Non-Violent, negotiated independence (India, Ghana, Turkey) q. Both violent and non-violent methods (Kenya, Congo, Egypt, South Africa)

Impact of the Cold War • Soviet pushed anti-colonial movement offered assistance • United States wanted access to African markets (why were they closed before? ) AND to prevent the spread of communism. • When West refused to help nationalists, they turned to the Soviet Union

Road towards Independence • Most Europeans planned a “long transition” period to independence • By mid-1950’s pace increased • 1960 considered the year of Africa with so many nations gaining independence

End of an Empire? “The wind of change is blowing through this continent, and whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact. We must all accept it, and our national policies must take account of it. ” - British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in 1960 to the South African Parliament • What is the significance of this statement to the British Empire?

Colonial Rule and Independence in Africa

Phases of Decolonization in Africa

Phases of Decolonization • Phase One: roughly 19571973 (most of West and East Africa) • Phase Two: roughly 19741994 (mostly Southern/Central Africa)

Phase One---The 1960 s: Optimism and Compromise • The first phase of decolonization was by no means without violence, but it included many examples of peaceful, smooth transfer of power • Colonial powers maintain some control over the terms of decolonization • Decolonization was grounded in the rhetoric of democracy and classical liberalism • Newly independent states looked to Japan and Germany as models of a post-occupation boom

Phase Two of Decolonization • Violence was far more ubiquitous than in the first phase of decolonization • Decolonization tended to be grounded in the rhetoric of liberation and social transformation • Deeply enmeshed with the Cold War

Independence • Three major routes: – Peaceful / Negotiated independence • Typically achieved in non-settler colonies, ex = Ghana – Violent • Typically occurred in settler colonies, ex = Kenya, Algeria – Incomplete • White settler minority population given political power in decolonization, ex = S. Africa

As a imperial power, Britain conquered much of Africa including Gold Coast After WWII, Britain allowed Africans in Gold Coast to participate in local self governments Starting in 1947, Kwame Nkrumah used Gandhi’s nonviolent strategy of boycotts & strikes to pressure Britain to grant independence

Non-Violent Movements Ghana Leader: • Kwame Nkrumah Goals: • “Freedom Now” from British rule • Pan-African Congress Events/Methods: • Influenced by Gandhi • “Positive Action” movement • Strikes and boycotts • Civil disobedience

Ghana & Nkrumah’s Vision • 1 st black African majority to gain independence in 1957 Nkrumah’s Goals: • Unify Africa politically and economically (Pan. Africanism) • Harness vast natural resources • Reduce Western influence • Positive economic influence

Kwame Nkrumah What is his vision? • Unify Africa politically and economically (Pan-Africanism) • Harness vast natural resources in Africa • Lessen influence of West • Positive economic influence

Nkrumah supported Pan. Africanism (unity among Africans) & hoped to create a “United States of Africa” After a decade of struggle, Britain granted Gold Coast independence in 1957 & the nation was renamed Ghana Kwame Nkrumah was elected president-for-life 1966, Nkrumah was overthrown & & began. Inan ambitious struggled between military & civilian series. Ghana of road, education, rule until elections were finally held in 2000 health programs

Non-Violent Movements Ghana Results: • 1957 – Independence granted – 1 st sub. Saharan nation to gain independence • Nkrumah becomes 1 st Prime Minister • Formation of Organization of African Unity in 1963 (OAU) Major Problems: • Nkrumah makes himself “President for life” in 1964 • Economic downturn – general unrest • Overthrown by Military coup – led to suspension of constitution and banning of political parties • 1992 – new constitution, multi-party politics, elections – continued poverty

Settler Africa

Settler Colonies • Different obstacles met by settler vs. nonsettler colonies - what might they be? What is the difference? • Settler colonies in Algeria (one million) and Kenya (40, 000) pushed governments to defeat nationalist uprisings

Not all African independence movements ended with democracy or without bloodshed After gaining independence, Nigeria erupted in an ethnic civil war In Congo, a series of civil wars weakened the newly-formed nation Ethnic divisions weakened Kenya’s government & led to violence & rule by dictators

Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements Kenya Leader: • Jomo Kenyatta Goals: • Independence from Britain • Wanted to unite all Kenyans, Kikuyu and non-Kikuyu • Get back fertile highland farmland

Kenya In the 1950 s the Kenyan path to independence did not go as smoothly as it did in Ghana. Conflict Mau • Ownership of land, possibility of independence led to conflict between white Kenyan farmers, native Kikuyu people • Leader of Kenya’s nationalist movement, Jomo Kenyatta argued for Kikuyu’s right to land, its importance • Farmers feared independence would cause them to lose large tracts of valuable cash crops in Kenyan highlands • Many Kikuyu farmers formed violent movement, Mau • Kikuyu wanted these ancestral homelands back • Group terrorized highlands, murdered anyone opposing them, including Africans who cooperated with white settlers

Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements • Presence of settlers prevented smooth transition of power. • Jomo Kenyatta used nonviolent protests • Kenya (20, 000 Europeans only) led to violent revolt. • Mau-Mau Revolt, 1952, led by Kikuyus suppressed by British. • 1963 independence granted to black majority, led by Kenyatta. Kenya

• What is the cartoon trying to say? What perspective is it conveying?

Kenya

"We refused to do this work. We were fighting for our freedom. We were not slaves. . There were two hundred guards. One hundred seventy stood around us with machine guns. Thirty guards were inside the trench with us. The white man in charge blew his whistle and the guards started beating us. They beat us from 8 am to 11. 30. They were beating us like dogs. I was covered by other bodies - just my arms and legs were exposed. I was very lucky to survive. But the others were still being beaten. There was no escape for them. ”

British Regain Control British eventually regained control of colony • British murdered, tortured members of Mau movement • Late 1950 s, British convinced to accept decolonization – 1963, Kenya became independent nation – Jomo Kenyatta became first prime minister

Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements Kenya Events/Methods: • • Clash between white settlers and Nationalists Harambee, “Pull Together” peaceful protest Mau Rebels – Violent campaign British jailed many – Kenyatta for 7 years Results: • 1963 – Kenya gets Independence • Kenyatta – First President • Ethnic groups continued to work together Major Problems: • Difficulty of Ethnic diversity and Tribalism • One party/Kikuyu domination • Government corruption

Violent Movements Algeria Leader: • Ahmed Ben Bella Goals: • Independence from French Rule • Arab Nationalism Events/Methods: • FLN (National Liberation Front) • Used violence, guerilla warfare, Terrorism, Torture • 8 year civil war 1954 -1962

Violent Movements Algeria Results: • 1962 - Algeria won its Independence • As many as 300, 000 died Major Problems: • Religious and ethnic conflict • Rise of Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) • Ethnic minority Berbers – ongoing autonomy campaign • Social and infrastructure problems (unreliable electric and water supply

Settler Colonies • Both Kenya and Algeria uprisings would be eventually smashed • Weariness and new anti-colonial sentiments lead to independence anyway • Most French Algerians leave, most British Kenyans stay

Portuguese and Belgian Colonies Transition Difficult Belgian Congo • Transition to independence for Belgian, Portuguese colonies more difficult than for British, French • After World War II, Belgian government agreed to prepare people of Belgian Congo for self -government • Belgians, Portuguese held on to colonies longer than any other European nations • 1950 s, African nationalists in Congo demanded immediate self-government • Violence forced decolonization • 1960, Belgians announced complete withdrawal; soon violence toward Belgian settlers, civil war erupted

Leaders Emerge in Portuguese Colonies • Portugal continued to hold on to colonies • Meanwhile, African leaders emerged in colonies of Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique • Leaders organized armies to fight for independence Bloody Warfare in Portuguese Colonies • Long years of bloody warfare marked last decades of Portuguese rule • War, military coup in Portugal drained Portuguese economy; made it impossible to continue support of colonies • 1974, Portugal withdrew completely from Africa

Violent Movements Angola Leader: • The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), proclaimed the country's first president, Dr Agostinho Neto, Goals: • Independence From Portugal Events/Methods: • 1961 – War of Independence began after Portugal refused to give Angola self-rule • UNITA disputed the MPLA's rule, and civil war broke out almost immediately. With the Soviet Union and Cuba supporting the Marxist MPLA, and the United States and South Africa supporting the anti-Communist UNITA, the country became a cold war battleground.

Violent Movements Angola Results: • Up to 1. 5 million lives may have been lost - and 4 million people displaced in the quarter century of fighting • 1992 – Shift to multiparty Democracy – Free elections Major Problems: • Constant civil wars and violence • Poor infrastructure and technology • Famine due to corruption and mismanagement of oil revenue

Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements Congo Leader: • Patrice Lumumba and Mobutu Sese Seko Goals: • Gain Independence from Belgium • Create a National Party that represented and united the Congo, the non-tribal Movement National Congolais (MNC) • Create a constitution and have free elections

Both Violent and Non-Violent Movements Congo Events/Methods: • Anti-colonial strikes and riots led to Belgium granting Congo Independence • Patrice Lumumba became first legally elected Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo after he helped to win its independence. • Ten weeks later, Lumumba's government was deposed in a coup during the Congo Crisis. He was subsequently imprisoned and murdered under controversial circumstances. Results: • 1965 – Mobutu Sese Seko takes over the nation and rules as Military dictator for 32 years Major Problems: • One party state • Government corruption – “Kleptocracy”

Results of Decolonization

Varying Transitions of Freedom in Africa • For the most part, decolonization in the parts of African that had been British and French went smoothly. • Both Britain and France prepared their colonies for freedom by educating native elites, allowing greater native representation in transitional governments, and minimizing the possibility of interethnic conflict. • The worst transitions to independence were made by Belgian and Portuguese colonies who had been exploitative and did not prepare colonies for independence.

External Challenges • Western investments remain – Impact? • Economic dependence on former colonial powers • Cold War (USSR v. US) struggle to spread influence

Internal Challenges • Tribal allegiances • Illiteracy / under developed education system • No tradition of ongoing political leadership in modern times • Religious differences • Diverse geography and climate • Established social hierarchies

Among the worst examples of violence in Africa is the genocide (mass killings) in Rwanda & Sudan In Darfur, the Sudanese gov’t killed up to 400, 000 Muslims in an attempt to destroy an anti-gov’t rebel movement Link to video on Rwandan genocide (3. 00) In Rwanda, ethnic conflict between rival clans led to the massacring Link. Hutus to video on Darfur genocidebetween (5. 00) 500, 000 & 800, 000 Tutsi in 1994

Genocide in Africa U. N. Peacekeeping Interventions, 1945 -2009

Results of Decolonization • Nationalist parties & African elites gain power – Use anti-colonial legacy to maintain power & cloud ineptitude & favoritism • Economic dependence on West coupled with political corruption cripples attempts to diversify economy – Stuck in cash crop ag & extraction of resources

Results of Decolonization • Initial political parties reflected ethnic, regional, or religious groups - few true national parties • Power often gained by corrupt African “strongmen” (dictators) who ignored the social needs of people • Large loans to modernize economies squandered by those in power - leave little progress, lots of debt

Conclusions • Decolonization was sometimes a violent process- dependent in large part on how many settlers had come to the colony. • In many parts of world, decolonization was not revolutionary. Power passed from one class of elites to another. Little economic and social reform occurred. • Significant challenges faced independent nations. • Western economic dominance of the global trade system continued unabated. WHY?