Chapter 13 Prejudice Causes Consequences and Cures Slides

Chapter 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures Slides prepared by Jo. Nell Strough, Ph. D. & Philip Lemaster, M. A. West Virginia University Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Multimedia Directory Slide 44 Stereotype Threats Video Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice—The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon • Prejudice is ubiquitous. – It affects us all. • Prejudice often flows from the minority group to the majority group. – Can also flow in the other direction • Any group can be a target of prejudice. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice—The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon • Many aspects of your identity can cause you to be labeled and discriminated against: – Nationality – Racial and ethnic identity – Gender – Sexual orientation Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What is this woman’s occupation? Most Western non-Muslims hold the stereotype that Muslim women who wear the full-length black niqab must be repressed sexually as well as politically. But Wedad Lootah, a Muslim living in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is a marriage counselor and sexual activist, author of a best-selling Arabic sex manual. Source: Bryan Denton/The New York Times/Redux Pictures Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice—The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon • Many aspects of your identity can cause you to be labeled and discriminated against: – Religion – Appearance – Physical state – Weight Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice—The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon • Many aspects of your identity can cause you to be labeled and discriminated against: – Disabilities – Diseases – Hair color – Professions – Hobbies Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice—The Ubiquitous Social Phenomenon • Prejudice is dangerous. – It can escalate to extreme hatred, torture, murder, and even genocide. – Even when murder or genocide is not the result, the targets of prejudice will suffer in less dramatic ways. – One frequent consequence is diminution of one’s self-esteem. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice Defined • Prejudice is an attitude with three components: – Affective (emotional) component • Type of emotion linked with the attitude (e. g. , anger, warmth) • Extremity of the attitude (e. g. , mild uneasiness, outright hostility) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice Defined • Prejudice is an attitude with three components: – Behavioral component • How people act on emotions and cognitions – Cognitive component • Beliefs or thoughts that make up the attitude Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice Defined • Prejudice – General attitude structure and its affective (emotional) component • Social psychologists use the word prejudice primarily when referring to negative attitudes about others. – But we have positive attitudes too. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice Defined • A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotypes—The Cognitive Component • Stereotype – A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. • Once formed, stereotypes are resistant to change on the basis of new information! Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotypes—The Cognitive Component • Stereotyping is a cognitive process, not an emotional one. – Stereotyping does not necessarily lead to intentional acts of abuse. – Stereotyping is a technique we use to simplify how we look at the world. • We all do it to some extent. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Illusory Correlation • Minority groups are distinctive so we remember their behavior. – Creates an illusory correlation between the group and behavior we encounter. – Example—thinking Muslims are terrorists after 9/11 Illusory Correlation When we expect two things to be related, we fool ourselves into believing that they are actually unrelated. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What’s Wrong with Positive Stereotypes? • Potential abuse of stereotyping can be more subtle—and might involve a stereotype about a positive attribute. – Example—race and sports ability Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What’s Wrong with Positive Stereotypes? • Example – Sports, Race, and Attribution • What’s wrong with the implication that black men can jump? – “Mark Flick” study (Stone et al. , 1997) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What’s Wrong with Positive Stereotypes? • Denies individuality of person – Ignore the fact that plenty of African American kids are not adept at basketball and a plenty of white kids are • If we meet a young African American man and feel astonished at his ineptitude on the basketball court, we are denying him his individuality. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotypes of Gender • Traditional Stereotypes – Women • More socially sensitive, friendlier, and more concerned with the welfare of others – Men • More dominant, controlling, and independent Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotypes of Gender • Hostile sexism – Stereotypical views of women that suggest that women are inferior to men • E. g. , that they are less intelligent, less competent, and so on • Benevolent sexism – Stereotypical, positive views of women Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Emotions—The Affective Component • Negative emotions about groups are often ingrained. • This makes such attitudes difficult to dispel. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Discrimination— The Behavioral Component • Discrimination – An unjustified negative or harmful action toward the members of a group simply because of their membership in that group. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Discrimination— The Behavioral Component • Microaggressions – Slights, indignities and “putdowns” directed at minorities and people with disabilities Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

One unobtrusive measure of social distance and “microaggressions” is to notice how people respond, nonverbally, to people with disabilities. Source: Sally Greenhill/Sally and Richard Greenhill/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

“Modern” Racism and Other Implicit Prejudices • People hide prejudice. – When situation becomes “safe, ” their prejudice will be revealed. • Example – Questioning President Obama’s Americanism, not his race per se Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Measuring Implicit Prejudices • Most people don’t want to admit their prejudices, so unobtrusive measures are necessary. – Bogus pipeline • Participants believed a “lie detector” could detect true attitudes. • More likely to express racist attitudes – Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT) • Measures speed of positive and negative reactions to target groups Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Typical stimuli used in the IAT to measure implicit racism. Source: William A. Cunningham, University of Toronto Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Activating Implicit Prejudices • To best understand implicit prejudices, observe actual behavior Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 1 Errors Made in “Shooting” People in a Video Game Participants played a video game in which they were supposed to “shoot” a man if he was holding a gun and withhold fire if he was holding a harmless object such as a cell phone. As the data graph shows, players were equally likely to “shoot” an armed white man, but much more likely to “shoot” black men who were unarmed, like the man in the photo. (Adapted from Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2002) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 1 (continued) Errors Made in “Shooting” People in a Video Game Participants played a video game in which they were supposed to “shoot” a man if he was holding a gun and withhold fire if he was holding a harmless object such as a cell phone. As the data graph shows, players were equally likely to “shoot” an armed white man, but much more likely to “shoot” black men who were unarmed, like the man in the photo. (Adapted from Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2002) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 2 The Unleashing of Prejudice Against African Americans (Adapted from Rogers & Prentice-Dunn, 1981) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Automatic and Controlled Processing of Stereotypes • Automatic processing of information – Do not have control over • Stereotypes may be automatically triggered under certain conditions. • Controlled processing of information – Have control over • Ignore or refute stereotype that was automatically activated Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 3 A Two-Step Model of the Cognitive Processing of Stereotypes Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Effects of Prejudice on the Victim—Self-Fulfilling Prophecies • Example – If a society believes that a particular group is stupid, uneducable, it will act in accordance with beliefs. • Educational resources will not be provided to that group. • The Consequence—The group will not attain adequate education. • The Result—The society’s original belief will be confirmed. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 4 An Experiment Demonstrating Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat • Victim of prejudice may internalize stereotypes • Experience anxiety about confirming stereotype Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat • The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat (Stone et al. , 1999) • Participants played a game of miniature golf. – One half were told the game measured “sport strategic intelligence. ” • Black athletes performed worse than white athletes. – One half were told the game measured “natural athletic ability. ” • Black athletes better than white athletes. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat and Gender • Stereotype—Men are better at math than women. – IV = Information given to women about a math test – DV = women’s performance on the test Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat and Gender • When told the math test was designed to show gender differences in math abilities – Women did not perform as well as men • When told the math test did not detect male-female differences – Women and men performed equally well Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat and Gender • Other research shows white men’s performance can be similarly affected by task instructions Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threat • How can the effects of stereotype threat be reversed? – Simply understanding stereotype threat can improve performance. – Reminding participants they were “selective northeastern liberal arts college” students eliminated the gender gap on a spatial ability test. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stereotype Threats Video Click on the screenshot to hear Dr. Aronson discuss how stereotype threat can affect performance as well as ways to counteract stereotype threat. Back to Directory Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

What Causes Prejudice? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Children often learn prejudice from parents and grandparents. Source: AP Photo/The Herald, Ross Taylor Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules • Institutional discrimination – Practices that discriminate, legally or illegally, against a minority group by virtue of its ethnicity, gender, culture, age, sexual orientation, or other target of societal or company prejudice. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Institutionalized Racism and Sexism • Institutionalized racism – Racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm • Institutionalized sexism – Sexist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

When Prejudice Is Institutionalized • Normative conformity – The strong tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group’s expectations and gain acceptance Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Social Categorization— Us Versus Them • The first step in prejudice – Creation of groups • Putting some people into one group based on certain characteristics • This kind of categorization—an underlying theme of human social cognition – Useful and necessary – But can have profound implications Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In-Group Bias • Positive feelings and special treatment for people we have defined as being part of our in-group and negative feelings and unfair treatment for others simply because we have defined them as being in the out-group Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dressing alike is a way of demonstrating membership in an in-group. Source: Cultura Creative/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In-Group Bias • The major underlying motive is selfesteem – Individuals enhance self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups. – Self-esteem is enhanced only if the individual sees these groups as superior to other groups. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In-Group Bias • Researchers have created entities that they refer to as minimal groups. – Strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable. – In one experiment, participants watched a coin toss that randomly assigned them to either group X or group W. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In-Group Bias • Despite being strangers before the experiment, group members behaved as if those in the same group were friends or family. – They liked members of their own group better. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

In-Group Bias • Despite being strangers before the experiment, group members behaved as if those in the same group were friends or family. – They rated members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities and to have done better work than outgroup members. – They allocated more rewards to those who shared their label. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Out-Group Homogeneity • In-group members tend to perceive out -group members as being more similar (homogeneous) than they really are. • If you know something about one outgroup member, you are more likely to feel you know something about all of them. Out-Group Homogeneity The belief that “they” are all alike. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 5 Judgments About In-Group and Out-Group Members After watching the target person make a choice between two alternatives, participants were asked to estimate what percentage of students at their school (in-group) and their rival school (out-group) would make the same choice. An out-group homogeneity bias was found: Students thought that outgroup members were more alike, whereas they noticed variation within their own in-group. (Adapted from Quattrone & Jones, 1980) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How We Assign Meaning Attributional Biases Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dispositional Versus Situational Explanations • One reason stereotypes are so insidious and persistent is the human tendency to make dispositional attributions. • Relying too heavily on dispositional attributions often leads us to make attributional mistakes. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dispositional Versus Situational Explanations • Ultimate attribution error – Our tendency to make dispositional attributions about an individual’s negative behavior to an entire group of people. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dispositional Versus Situational Explanations • Researchers had college students read fictionalized files on prisoners to make a parole decision. • Sometimes the crime matched the common stereotype of the offender. – Hispanic male—assault and battery – Upper-class Anglo-American— embezzlement Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Dispositional Versus Situational Explanations • When crimes were consistent with stereotypes, students’ recommendations for parole were harsher. • Most students ignored additional information that was relevant to a parole decision but inconsistent with the stereotype (such as evidence of good behavior in prison). Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Blaming the Victim • When empathy is absent, it can be hard to avoid blaming the victim. Blaming the Victim The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, is typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Blaming the Victim • Example—rape victims – Must have “deserved it” • Behaved inappropriately • Dressed provocatively • Blaming the victim serves a selfprotective function – Can’t happen to me, wouldn’t behave that way Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice • Crandall and Eschleman’s (2003) model – Struggle between urge to express prejudice and the need to maintain positive selfconcept (as a non-bigot) – Requires energy to suppress prejudiced impulses Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Bible has been used to promote tolerance and compassion—as well as to justify and inflame many prejudices. Source: Jim West/ Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice • To conserve energy, seek valid justification for holding a negative attitude toward a particular out-group • Can then act against that group and still feel like a non-bigot – Avoids cognitive dissonance Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Prejudice and Economic Competition • Realistic conflict theory – Limited resources conflict among groups prejudice and discrimination – The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Economic and Political Competition • When times are tough and resources are scarce: 1. In-group members will feel more threatened by the out-group. 2. Incidents of prejudice, discrimination, and violence toward out-group members will increase. 3. Sherif’s classic study—Eagles versus Rattlers Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Realistic Group Conflict Theory • Prejudice increases when times are tense and conflict exists over mutually exclusive goals. – Example • Economic recession and violence against Latinos Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Role of the Scapegoat • Scapegoating – When frustrated or unhappy, people tend to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless • Form of aggression dependent on what in-group approves of or allows Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

After the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on 9/11, scapegoating of Muslims increased. Source: David Taylor Photography/Alamy Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How Can Prejudice Be Reduced? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How Can Prejudice Be Reduced? • Researchers have found that when people are presented with an example that seems to refute their existing stereotype, most do not change their general belief. – One experiment—some people presented with disconfirming evidence actually strengthened stereotypical belief. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

How Can Prejudice Be Reduced? • Researchers have found that when people are presented with an example that seems to refute their existing stereotype, most do not change their general belief. – Disconfirming evidence challenged them to come up with additional reasons for holding on to that belief. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 6 The Impact of Cross-Ethnic Friendships on Minority Students’ Well-Being In a longitudinal study of minority black students at a predominantly white university, many black students at first felt dissatisfied and excluded from school life. But the more white friends they made, the higher their sense of belonging (purple bar) and satisfaction with the university (green bar). This finding was particularly significant for minority students who had been the most sensitive to rejection and who had felt the most anxious and insecure about being in a largely white school. The study was later replicated with minority Latino students. (Mendoza-Denton & Page-Gould, 2008) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The Contact Hypothesis • Mere contact between groups not sufficient to reduce prejudice – Can create opportunities for conflict that may increase it • Prejudice will decrease when two conditions are met: – Both groups are of equal status. – Both share a common goal. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

When Contact Reduces Prejudice—Six Conditions • Sherif and colleagues (1961) found: – Once hostility and distrust were established, simply removing a conflict and the competition did not restore harmony. – In fact, bringing two competing groups together in neutral situations actually increased their hostility and distrust. Mutual Interdependence The need to depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each group. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 13. 7 How Cooperation Fosters Intergroup Relations When the Eagles and the Rattlers were in competition, very few of the boys in each group had friends from the other side. Intergroup tensions were eased only after the boys had to cooperate to get shared privileges and the boys began to make friends across “enemy lines. ” (Based on data in Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood, & Sherif, 1961) Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

When Contact Reduces Prejudice—Six Conditions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Mutual interdependence Common goal Equal status Friendly, informal setting Knowing multiple out-group members Social norms of equality Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

When women first began to work as peers with male police officers, they were often seen as the exception to the existing stereotype of women. Under what conditions will contact in the workplace reduce prejudice? Source: Jonathan Nourok/Photo. Edit Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Jigsaw Classroom • Classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children – Placing children in small, desegregated groups – Make each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class • Reduces prejudice and promotes integration Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Jigsaw Classroom • Why does the jigsaw work? – Breaks down perception of in-group and out -group, creates feeling of “one-ness” – People must do each other “favors” by sharing information – Develop empathy for others • One of the most effective ways of improving race relations, improving empathy, and improving instruction Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Summary and Review • • Components of Prejudice Modern Racism and Implicit Prejudices Causes of Prejudice Reducing Prejudice Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Social Categorization— Us Versus Them • For example, in Jane Elliot’s third-grade classroom, children grouped according to eye color began to act differently based on that social categorization. • Blue-eyed children, the superior group, stuck together and actively promoted and used their higher status and power in the classroom. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Social Categorization— Us Versus Them • They formed an in-group, defined as the group with which an individual identifies. • The blue-eyed kids saw the brown-eyed ones as outsiders—different and inferior. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Social Categorization— Us Versus Them • To the blue-eyed children, the browneyed kids were the out-group, the group with which the individual does not identify. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Implicit Prejudice • Often aren’t aware of our prejudices. • How can it be prejudice if we aren’t even aware of it? – Can manifest in dangerous consequences. – Example • Studies have shown people more likely to accidentally shoot an unarmed African American than a White person Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Expectations and Distortions • When a member of an out-group behaves as we expect, it confirms and even strengthens our stereotype. And when an out-group member behaves in an unexpected, nonstereotypical fashion? Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Expectations and Distortions • Attribution theory: can simply engage in some attributional fancy footwork and emerge with our dispositional stereotype intact • Can make situational attributions about the exception. – Example, that the person really is as we believe, but it just isn’t apparent in this situation. Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.