Wildlife Conservation and Management Concepts that Guide Conservation

Wildlife Conservation and Management

Concepts that Guide Conservation Biology • * a single large area of habitat is more effective at safeguarding species than several habitat fragments – can support larger populations – can support greater species richness • * it is better if areas of habitat for a given species are located close together rather than far apart – easier dispersal

Concepts that Guide Conservation Biology continued • * areas of habitat that lack roads or are inaccessible to humans are better than human-accessible areas • * it is more effective and economical to preserve intact ecosystems in which many species live than to work on preserving individual species one at a time

Techniques to “Save” Species • include: – protecting habitats – restoring damaged or destroyed habitats – zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, and seed banks – forming conservation organizations

Protecting Habitats • currently, more than 3, 000 national parks, sanctuaries, refuges, forests, and protected areas throughout the world – some areas have multiple uses logging, grazing, mineral extraction, military exercises • can conflict with preserving species – not always effective not enough money or expertise to manage them – many areas are in biomes that have relatively few kinds of species (e. g. deserts)

Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats • restoration ecology: the principles of ecology are used to help return a degraded environment to as close as possible to its former state – may cost a lot and take a long time, but can deter extinction

Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks • can save species on the brink of extinction e. g. collect eggs, captive breeding programs, etc. – techniques used include: • • artificial insemination embryo transfer reintroduction of endangered species to nature seed banks

Artificial Insemination • sperm collected from a suitable male of a rare species is used to artificially impregnate a female – e. g. black-footed ferret

Embryo Transfer • a female of a rare species is treated with fertility drugs so that she will produce multiple eggs – the eggs are collected, fertilized, and implanted in a related species • e. g. bongo calf and eland • e. g. Indian desert kitten and domestic cat

Reintroduction of Endangered Species to Nature • only 10% of reintroductions are successful • feasibility studies • social animals are released in small groups • can animals raised in captivity act as they do in the wild?

Seed Banks • advantages – can store a large amount of plant genetic material in a small space – seeds are safe from habitat destruction, climate warming, and neglect • disadvantages – some plants cannot be stored as seeds – seeds do not remain alive indefinitely – can be expensive – accidents (fires, power failures) can result in permanent loss – plants cannot evolve in response to environmental change

Ethics of “Saving” Species • we must prioritize what species “get saved” – it is too expensive to try to save all endangered species – how do we pick? ? ?

Conservation Organizations • groups help to educate policy makers and the public about the importance of biodiversity • can serve as catalysts for galvanizing public support for important biodiversity preservation efforts • provide financial support for conservation projects (research, land purchase, etc. )

Conservation Policies and Laws • U. S. policies and laws include: – the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) – the U. S. Biological Resources Discipline (BRD) • international policies and laws include: – the World Conservation Strategy – 1992 Earth Summit Treaty – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 • the ESA authorizes the FWS to protect endangered and threatened species in the United States AND abroad – conducts a detailed study of a species to determine if it should be listed – provides legal protection to listed species so that their danger of extinction is reduced – makes it illegal to sell or buy any product made from a listed species – requires the FWS to select critical habitats and design a detailed recovery plan for each species listed

Recovery Plans • include: – an estimate of the current population size – an analysis of what factors contributed to its endangerment – a list of activities that will be used to help the population recover • plans can include more than one species, or one species may have more than one plan

ESA Considerations • considered one of the strongest pieces of U. S. environmental legislation – why? – updates were made in ’ 82(*), ’ 85, and ’ 88 • one of the most controversial pieces of environmental legislation – property rights – financial costs of the law – impediment to economic progress?

*Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) • part of the 1982 update • provided a way to resolve conflicts between protection of endangered species and development interests on private property – allows a landowner to “take” a rare species if the “taking” does not threaten the survival or recovery of the listed species on that property – if a landowner sets aside land as habitat for the rare species, he/she then has the right to develop a different part of the property without threat of legal action by the FWS

ESA Compromises • more than 90% of endangered species live on at least some privately owned lands – give landowners incentives? • e. g. tax cuts for landowners who are good land stewards species would then be an ASSET, not a liability

Problems with the ESA • not many species have been delisted – BUT many species are stable or improving • the law is geared toward saving “sexy” organisms rather than the much larger number of less glamorous species that perform valuable ecosystem services • conservationists would like the ESA to manage whole ecosystems and maintain complete biodiversity rather than attempt to save endangered species as isolated entities – collective protection

CITES • the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (1975) – 160 countries participate – bans hunting, capturing, and selling of endangered or threatened species and regulates trade of organisms listed as potentially threatened – enforcement varies from country to country – who actually owns wildlife?

Wildlife Management • an applied field of conservation biology that focuses on the continued productivity of plants and animals – includes: • the regulation of hunting and fishing • the management of food, water, and habitat • often has different priorities than pure conservation biology – focuses on maintaining the population of a certain species (rather than on managing a community to ensure biodiversity in general)

Wildlife Management in Action • e. g. natural predators of many game animals have largely been eliminated in the U. S. (like wolves) – as a result, squirrels, ducks, and deer often exceed K – sport hunting can effectively control overpopulation of game animals • restrictions necessary

Methods of Wildlife Management • wildlife managers can affect a species by manipulating the plant cover, food, and water supplies of its habitat – control the stage of ecological succession – why? – use techniques such as planting certain types of vegetation, burning the undergrowth with controlled fires, and building artificial ponds

Management of Freshwater Organisms • e. g. trout, salmon • fishing laws • maintain natural habitats to maximize population size • restock ponds, lakes, and streams with young hatchlings

Management of Ocean Organisms • considered common property many marine species have been severely reduced in numbers by commercial fishing – commercial extinction: when so few of a species remain that it is unprofitable to hunt them • e. g. whale species (19 th and 20 th centuries)

Limits on Whaling • the 1946 International Whaling Commission set an annual limit for each whale species – BUT limits were set too high • moratorium on whaling in 1986 • 1994 establishment of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary • Japan and Norway?

What Can WE Do About Declining Biodiversity? • we CAN reverse the trend toward extinction! – methods include: • increasing public awareness • supporting research in conservation biology • supporting the establishment of an international system of parks • controlling pollution • providing economic incentives to landowners and other local people

Providing Economic Incentives to Landowners and Locals • incentives encourage preservation, especially in developing nations that do not have much money to spend on conservation – allow them to charge fees for the use of genetic material? • bioprospecting agreements (e. g. the Suriname Biodiversity Prospecting Initiative) – promote ecotourism • conserves natural areas while improving the well-being of local people (e. g. Thailand’s coral reefs, tours of Costa Rica’s rainforests, Kenya’s safaris)

Economic Incentives continued • incentives continued: – debt-for-nature swaps: developed nations can forgive or reduce debts owed by developing nations in exchange for the agreement of the developing nation to protect biodiversity • e. g. the U. S. purchased $1 million of Madagascar’s national debt for their government’s support of local conservation efforts – reduce property taxes on privately owned land used as wildlife habitat