WILDLIFE HABITAT REQUIREMENTS Agriscience 381 Wildlife and Recreation

WILDLIFE HABITAT REQUIREMENTS Agriscience 381 Wildlife and Recreation Management #8986 -A TEKS: (c)(3)(C)

Introduction Wildlife management is a complicated science. Its goal is to establish a healthy, diverse wild population of plants and animals in a symbiotic relationship.

Plants, prey species, and rainfall help to meet the food, cover, and water requirements which, along with arrangement, are essential for the survival of wildlife. Photo by J. R. Douglass courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Human interference breaks down these elements. Habitat is lost to agriculture, roads, homes, and industry. Photo by Erwin C. Cole courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Habitat management is providing attention to the needs of wildlife, including food, water, cover, space and arrangement. Photo by John Brandow courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Food is energy. Plants (producers) provide the base of the food chain. Plants use nutrients from the soil, energy from the sun, and sufficient water to produce energy for growth.

Primary consumers eat the plants. Secondary consumers eat the primary consumers. Tertiary consumers eat the secondary consumers. Through this chain of events, energy is passed from one level of consumers to the next level of consumers.

Tertiary Consumers Secondary Consumers Primary Consumers Producers

Herbivores are animals that feed only on plant materials. Photo by Bill Ratcliff. Photo by TNK. Photo by Jeff Foott. Photo by J. Schmidt. Photos courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI. Photo by J. Schmidt.

Carnivores are predatory animals that feed on other animals. Photo by Jim Peaco. Photo by W. L. Miller. Photo by R. Robinson. Photo by K. Fink. Photo by Jim Peaco. Photos courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Omnivores will feed on either plants or animals. Photo by Jim Peaco. Photo by Bryan Harry. Photo by unknown. Photo by R. Robinson. Photos courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI. Photo by Don Arceneaux.

Plant types vary widely from trees to shrubs to grasses. Plants are even selective where they grow, including aquatic areas or drier climates. Photo by J. Schmidt. Photo by unknown. Photos courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI. Photo by J. Schmidt.

The plants serve two major purposes: • to feed animals, and • to protect the soil. Photo by Mike Boylan courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Plants protect the soil by holding in soil moisture and preventing soil erosion. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

A balance of plants support a community of animals. Those animals are prey to carnivores and omnivores (predators). Predators prevent herbivores from overpopulating and consuming all of the plants. This cycle of plants and animals eating and being eaten is the food chain.

Destruction of habitat breaks the cycle. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This reduces plants, exposes soil, removes cover and in turn reduces the population of herbivores, which creates a smaller food supply for predators.

Without enough natural food, animals feed on cultivated crops and domestic animals. Predator control and decreased food supply reduce the predator population. The need for a balance in nature becomes easy to understand.

Diversity in plants promotes a strong population of plant eaters, which makes more prey available for predators. Managing a food source for wildlife can be simple or complex. More elements in an ecosystem make it more complex to manage.

A game manager should understand the concept of “good” or “bad” years, competitors, seasons, and available shelter. A wildlife manager must know the population of all species and the food source of each species to manage the wildlife food supply. Photo by John & Karen Hollingsworth courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

White-tailed deer eat plants that fall into three different categories: • browse (woody plants), • forbs, and • grasses. Photo by Jesse Achtenberg courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Percentages of these plant groups depend on the season, vegetative areas, soils, individuals, and competition. A good deer diet should contain 14 to 18 percent protein. Photo by John Mosesso courtesy of National Biological Information Infrastructure.

Mule deer feed mainly on browse, but will eat succulent grasses and forbs when available. Photo by Miller courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Pronghorn antelope mainly eat forbs (65%), but also eat browse (30%) and grasses. In winter, wheat, barley, and oats can make up to 70% of the diet. Photo by William S. Keller courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI. Pronghorn can eat several forbs that are poisonous to livestock.

Javelina feed on various cacti. Prickly pear, mesquite beans, sotol, lechuguilla, and other succulent vegetation are preferred foods. Of these plants, prickly pear makes up 80 to 95 percent of the daily diet. Photo by Tom Stehn courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. They will also eat rats, grubs, and carrion.

A squirrel will only eat about 0. 2 pounds of food a day. Acorns make up about 60 percent of their diet. Photo by W. H. Julian courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Squirrels prefer pecans and will feed on the blooms through the nut stage.

Quail eat about 15 percent animal matter and 85 percent plant matter. Young birds almost only eat beetles, weevils, caterpillars, and crickets. Adults eat seeds fruits. and Photo by M. Jasek.

Pheasants are seedeaters, primarily domestic grains. Chicks feed on insects. Ragweed, careless weed, smartweed, and croton make up the winter diet. Photo by Roger Hill courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Turkey poults’ diets are 90 percent insects. Adults eat forbs, buds, flowers, seeds, and insects. Photo by Jeff Vanuga courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Corn, grain sorghum, and wheat are agricultural crops eaten by turkey.

Mourning dove diets are mainly seeds from grasses, cultivated grains, and forbs. Photo by Harry and Ruth Crockett courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI. The most popular place for mourning doves to feed is recently harvested crop fields.

Water is basic to all living organisms. Plants and animals have water requirements. Plants are adapted to the amount of rainfall available. Some animals can survive on the dew on plants or moisture in seeds.

With animals, the need for water depends on the species. Some animals can travel great distances to find water. For others, water must be close. Still others require a constant water source for their survival. Photo by Gordon Rodda courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Larger animals can travel farther to water than smaller animals. Smaller birds can travel farther than larger birds. Photo by K. A. King courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Nesting or nurturing females need water closer than males or females not caring for young.

Sources for water include surface water, snow, succulent plants, insects, and metabolic water. Rainfall and groundwater nourishes plants. The manager cannot control these factors.

Surface water is available in rivers, streams, creeks, ponds, and lakes. When these supplies are low or lacking, a manager can provide water to animals. Photos by Gary Kramer courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

One way to provide water is constructing ponds. These are usually watershed impoundments at the low end of land. Ponds should have clay content hold water and a stable embankment. Photo by Keith Zamzow. sloped high to provide

Two types of ponds can be constructed, the pit-type and the earthen dam. A pit-type pond is usually built on flat ground. It is supplied by rainfall or a pump.

Earthen dams are part of the watershed pond. Seasonal structures can create shallow ponds for waterfowl.

Water can occur in springs, perennial streams, and potholes as natural water supplies. Besides water, there is only one requirement for good wildlife habitat. Water must accompany good food and cover. Water alone in not enough to improve wildlife populations.

A person must understand know the water needs for many species in order to manage it correctly. Photo by Andrew Hacking courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

White-tailed deer will consume onehalf to one gallon of water daily. The need for water increases during hot weather. Water should be from one to three miles from the next available source. Photo by Keith Zamzow.

For mule deer, water should not be more than three miles apart. Poorly spaced water can concentrate deer herds. This can cause an overuse of forage species. Photo courtesy of Texas Bighorn Society webcam.

Pronghorn antelope are able to conserve water for long periods. Close water supplies are helpful, but not needed. Pronghorn often drink from livestock water troughs. Photo by Jim Peaco courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Javelinas are less dependent on free water because they get water from the succulents they eat. When succulents are lacking, javelina will seek streams, ponds, or water troughs. Usually, the absence of succulents will cause javelina to leave the area.

Squirrel habitat should have available water. They get water from succulent plants. Water collected in tree hollows provides water, along with ponds and creeks. If water is not available for long periods of time, squirrels will leave the area.

Quail water requirements are generally met from food, dew, or surface water. Photo by M. Jasek.

Water is not a critical element for pheasant. Irrigated cropland insects seem to meet their water needs.

Turkeys need water daily. They get water from food or free water and will nest close to water. Nesting hens should be within 400 feet of water.

Mourning doves have a high need for water and it is important during nesting season. The ability to fly makes water less of an issue. Meeting water needs of other species will meet the needs of doves.

Cover provides animals with protection from predators or shelter for nesting or natal activities. Habitat alone does not make it cover. Rocks, plants, crevices, and ravines are habitat, but provide no cover.

Cover requirements include several species of vegetation types. Factors that influence food, also influence cover. Plant growth is influenced by soil conditions, weather changes, and artificial conditions (i. e. cropland).

Agricultural practices can influence and promote wildlife cover. Such practices include the following: • rotating crops, • liming and fertilizing, • planting winter cover crops, • strip cropping, and • soil and water conservation practices.

Photo by Roger Hill courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Urban areas can also promote cover for wildlife by • planting multi-flora roses for fences; • seeding ditches; • building trails; and • providing safe corridors under highways for animal traffic.

A concept in golf course design, designated as an Audubon golf course, provides habitat for wildlife. Photo by D. Jasek.

Cover for one species will often benefit another. As with food and water, each species has its own cover needs.

White-tailed deer require woody cover. It may be motts or thickets in open areas. Photo by John Mosesso courtesy of National Biological Information Infrastructure. It must provide shelter from weather, predators, and humans.

Ideal cover would vary from 40 to 50 percent of an area. Cover should be protected from overgrazing and wildfires. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Mule deer require 25 to 35 percent of brush cover. They prefer shrubs, trees, and tall grasses. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Pronghorn antelope prefer open, rolling landscapes. It allows for early detection of predators. They do not require vegetative cover. Photo by Claire Dobert courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Photo Harvey Doerkson courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Javelina prefer dense thicket of prickly pear, scrub oak, guajillo, whitebrush, and mesquite for cover.

Fox squirrels adapt to a variety of forests. Mature oaks and hickory provide their best habitat. Photo by John Mosesso courtesy of National Biological Information Infrastructure.

Gray squirrels prefer tree cover along streams. Strong oak and pecan populations produce high gray squirrel populations. Photo by John Mosesso courtesy of National Biological Information Infrastructure.

Squirrels prefer hollow trees for nurseries. Leaf nests serve as refuge, nesting and feeding stations. Production is 2 ½ times for successful in tree cavities than in leaf nests. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Quail are edge animals and prefer successional stage vegetation. They need nesting, loafing, escape, and protective cover. Low woody growth is ideal nesting cover. Photo by M. Jasek Roosting cover provides escape in case danger threatens.

Pheasant need loafing cover, travel lanes, roosting cover, nesting cover, and winter cover. Photo by Roger Hill. Photos courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Photo by unknown.

Turkey need good roosting sites and shelter from weather. The best habitat is diverse with half in mature brush or timber, with random openings. Photo by Lynn Betts courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. It should have a variety of good, mast-producing hardwoods.

Mourning dove is the most adaptable species to cover needs. Photo by Lee Karney courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Broken topography of trees and openings seem more desirable. They prefer to feed on the ground where vegetation is sparse.

Space requirements allow wildlife to move about, avoid predators, locate a mate, seek food and water, and rest. Size of the home range varies with each species.

A mountain lion may defend a 150 mile territory, while a nestling wren may have a 150 -square foot territory. Movement outside the population range allows for dispersal of the species.

White-tailed deer need several hundred acres of food, cover, and water for good quality habitat. Densities of one deer to three acres are very unusual and typically seasonal. Photo by M. Jasek.

Site potential depends on soil type, vegetation, and current rainfall.

There is approximately one mule deer per 100 acres in the Trans. Pecos region. The Panhandle has a density of one deer per 300 acres. Photo by Gary Zahm courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Good range should support 10 to 15 deer per square mile.

Pronghorn antelope can cover great distances, depending on the need forage. A small herd of 8 to 12 animals requires a least a three or four section pasture. Photo Ron Nichols courtesy of USDA Online Photography Center.

Javelinas travel in 5 to 15 animal herds. Herd home ranges vary from 180 to 975 acres. Photo courtesy of Texas Bighorn Society webcam. Dense brush and an abundance of prickly pear are the main criteria for habitat.

Fox squirrel may range up to 40 acres over a period of one year. The average range is 10 acres with two acres minimum.

Gray squirrels may range up to 20 acres within a year. The average range is about 8 acres with the minimum range being about 2 acres.

Quail covey home range is normally ¼ square mile and rarely exceeds one square mile. Smaller range is due to food and cover being closer together.

A pheasant will roam widely to fulfill its needs. It will spend most of its time on a square mile or less.

Turkey range 8 to 10 miles from winter to summer sites (about 20, 000 acres). They should not be hunted or disturbed within a quarter mile of their roost or nest. Photo by Tim Knezek.

Space is not a limiting factor for mourning doves, except during nesting season. Photo by Evan Davis courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Arrangement brings food, cover, and water into the space used by animals. An ecotone is an area where two edges or boundaries of adjoining habitat meet.

This area (ecotone) contains components of both habitats. Animals from each habitat move in and out of the ecotone.

The edge can be managed to maximize its use. This increases horizontal diversity, which is the variety of plants along the ground.

Establishing these ecotones will not benefit all species. In some cases, it can reduce populations. There are two types of edges: inherent edges and induced edges.

Inherent edges are created as a result of soil, topography, or water. Photo courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Induced edges can be artificially or naturally created. Fire, wind, logging, planting, or seeding can cause induced edges. Photo by Steve Hillebrand courtesy of U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Induced edges are very unstable edges, sometimes lasting as little as two years or no more than ten years. Photo by Jim Peaco courtesy of Yellowstone National Park, National Park Service, DOI.

Where edges do exist, corridors between habitats allow for movement between them. Corridors must protect known travel routes, follow areas of least resistance, and connect seeps, springs, and riparian areas.

Proper arrangement of dissimilar habitats can support a more diverse wildlife population. The greater the diversity in habitat types, the better the opportunity for more abundant wildlife.

Vertical diversity is also necessary. Vertical diversity is the arrangement of plants from the ground upward.

Grasses and forbs are the lowest level. The understory, which is the next level, is made up of shrubs and young trees. The upper part of vertical diversity is the canopy, which is produced by mature trees.

A diverse wild animal population is often associated with the number and density of vertical layers in the habitat.

Food, cover, water, space, and arrangement are the critical requirements for a healthy, diverse population of wild animals in a habitat.

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