Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago www

Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago www. shanahanonliteracy. com Teaching Disciplinary Literacy – Social Studies/History

Educational Standards § Each state adopts educational standards for their students § Schools are responsible for addressing these standards and for making sure students accomplish them § Both the Hawaii English Language Arts and the Social Studies standards require attention to disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Many Changes Due to Common Core • Challenging texts • Close reading • Writing from sources • Informational text • Multiple texts • Argument • Embedded technology • Disciplinary literacy

Common Core State Standards § In 2010, CCSS was adopted for English Language Arts and Mathematics § These standards included disciplinary literacy requirements for History/Social Studies

C 3 Social Studies Standards § In 2017, the National Council for the Social Studies presented the C 3 Standards § These standards were designed with the idea that teachers of social studies and history would address the CCSS disciplinary literacy standards

C 3 Social Studies Standards (cont. ) “Reflecting the shared responsibility for literacy learning put forward by the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects (NGA and CCSSO, 2010 a), 2 the C 3 Framework fully incorporates and extends the expectations from the grades K– 5 English Language Arts standards and the grades 6– 12 standards for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. ”

CCSS – Grades 9 -12 Key Ideas and Details § Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information. § Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop and relate over the course of the text. § Analyze in detail a series of events described in a text; determine whether earlier events caused later ones or simply preceded them. § Evaluate various explanations for actions or events and determine which explanation best accords with evidence, acknowledging where the text leaves matters uncertain.

CCSS – Grades 9 -12 (cont. ) Craft and Structure § Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines the meaning of a key term over the course of a text (e. g. , how Madison defines faction in Federalist No. 10). § Analyze in detail how a complex primary source is structured, including how key sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text contribute to the whole. § Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include emphasize in their respective accounts.

CCSS – Grades 9 -12 (cont. ) Integration of Knowledge and Ideas: § Integrate quantitative or technical analysis (e. g. , charts, research data) with qualitative analysis in print or digital text. § Evaluate an author's premises, claims, and evidence by corroborating or challenging them with other information. § Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources.

Disciplinary Differences in Literacy § Each field of study has its own intellectual purposes and its own epistemological tools for creating knowledge § The nature of these purposes and tools lead to different patterns of communication (e. g. , different kinds of text, different uses of language, different ways of using evidence in argument, different types of criticism, etc. ) § Because of these differences, it is essential that students learn how to participate in these different fields of study

Cultural Differences Across Disciplines § The differences among the disciplines are more than content/information differences § They are separated by differences in how information is created, used, evaluated, in the nature of the language, demands for precision, etc. § Disciplinary Literacy requires enculturation and acculturation

The Culture of History • History is interpretative, and authors and sourcing are central in interpretation (consideration of bias and perspective) • Often seems narrative without purpose and argument without explicit claims (need to see history as argument based on partial evidence; narratives are more than facts) • Single texts are problematic (no corroboration)

The Culture of Science • Text provides knowledge that allows prediction of how the world works • Full understanding needed of experiments and processes • Close connections among prose, graphs, charts, formulas (alternative representations of constructs an essential aspect of of chemistry text) • Major reading strategies include corroboration and transformation

The Culture of Mathematics • Goal: arrive at “truth” • Importance of “close reading” an intensive consideration of every word in the text • Rereading a major strategy • Heavy emphasis on error detection • Precision of understanding essential

Epistemological Source of Cultural Differences Science Describe/explain real phenomena in natural world Systematic experiments and observations History Describe/explain past events Analysis of multiple perspectives Literature Describe/explain aesthetics of texts Analysis of text Mathematics Analytical reasoning about abstract ideas Pure thought about quantities, proportions, measures

Purpose and Beliefs Discipline Purpose Belief History To create a plausible, complete accounts of the There is no one true account past, based on evidence from the historical record. of the past. Science To create replicable, reliable findings about scientific phenomena that can be used to predict what will happen under similar conditions. Math To find the answer to a problem; the abstract truth. Logical, accurate solutions produce true answers. Literature To create artificial worlds that provide insight into the human condition. We constantly strive to get closer to the truth. Truth is irrelevant.

Methods and Evidence Disciplines Methods Evidence History Analysis of already existing artifacts and Is the analysis plausible, writings of other historians to answer corroborated, complete. Is questions about cause/effect, significance, there bias in perspective? goals/motivations, etc. Science Controlled experiments and systematic observations to discover features, processes, interactions, etc. of phenomena under study. Is the evidence experimental, replicable. Is process predictable? Math Logical thought to solve problems. Is the logic accurate? Literature Use of story and poetry to interpret the Is an interpretation of

Texts and Approaches Discipline Texts Approaches to Reading History Recounts, explanations, arguments Everything should be read critically, with an eye to the perspective of the author and the credibility of the information. Science Explanations, arguments about Experiments/findings read critically for adherence to features, processes, scientific methods; replicated, reliable information interactions read in learning mode (as with science textbooks). Math Proofs (of hypotheses), solutions to problems, explanations of mathematical processes Every word should be read carefully, and texts should be reread. Need to look for errors. Literature Poems, short stories, novels, plays; critiques; most Read in accordance with a particular literary tradition (e. g. close reading, reader response

The 7 C’s of History Historical accounts and history reading focus on 7 critical ideas § Change and continuity (What changed? What remained the same? ) § Causality and contingency (What factors/actions lead to change? Action is dependent on prior conditions) § Contextualization (faithful, appropriate reconstructions of the past, narrative history) § Compassion (historical empathy, impact on people, avoiding historical fallacies) § Critical response (sourcing, corroboration, use and evaluation of evidence) § Complexity (multiple frameworks of context and cause) § Contestability (open questions, debates, disagreements)

Social Studies is complex We want students to read like the experts, BUT There are many experts in social studies

Who are the experts? § Economists § Geographers § Political Scientists § Human geographers § Psychologists § Sociologists § Historians § Linguists § Anthropologists § Archaeologists § Philosophers § Etc.

The problem § Experts in each these fields have somewhat different epistemological understandings, purposes, methods, knowledge bases, and, hence, communication practices. § To read like experts, students taking social studies need to be able to change the way they read depending upon the field in which they are studying at the moment. § This means they not only need to develop particular reading practices, but they need to be metacognitively aware of their reading practices

In today’s secondary schools § Social Science takes into account mainly these fields: + Economics + Geography + Political Science/Civics + History § Other areas are considered within the lenses of these fields, such as + Art/culture + Religion + Technology

Let’s examine a few… History: Disciplinary literacy has most often been studied in the context of history § History creates interpretations of the past based upon multiple, often conflicting, evidence from the historical record and the writings of other historians § Historians do not believe they are creating “Truth” – rather they produce evidence-based, plausible accounts and interpretations of the past § When the information in text is about the past, it is essential to consider its plausibility and consistency with the evidence

History (cont. ) § History is often categorized topically (e. g. , U. S. history, world culture) § There also six categories of history (political history, diplomatic, cultural, social, economic, intellectual) and high school curricula and textbooks may be a mix of these § These different types of history share literate practices

Economics § Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources for production and distribution § It is concerned with relationships between humans and the resources they access § Economists collect and analyze data, study economic trends, develop forecasts (energy costs, inflation, interest rates, business cycles, employment levels, etc. ) § Economists need to be able to extrapolate trends and create actions from data § Economists use philosophical or theoretical lenses to make sense of data (e. g. Keynesian economics, supply-side economics) § Data are represented in charts, graphs, formulae, prose

Economics (cont. )…. . § Reading in economics is multimodal § Reading requires reciprocally moving among different sources of information § Reading in this way is like reading science § Accuracy is important—need to pay attention to more than just general information. § Reading in this way is like reading science or mathematics

Economics (cont. ) BUT… § Economic information is also speculative § What will happen if interest rates are raised? § How fast will the job market decline/recover? § When will the stock market see a correction? § Different interpretations are common § Thus, economics requires that one read a bit like a historian

Content Area Reading § Content area literacy has long championed the idea of “every teacher a teacher of reading” § The approach emphasizes teaching English Language Arts with content texts § Focus is on making students better students by building up their reading comprehension and study skills with content textbooks § Goal: To make students better students § What is the same across the disciplines?

Disciplinary Literacy § Disciplinary Literacy is a completely different concept § It is not about bringing ELA standards, methods, or approaches to the subject area classroom § Each discipline has its own ways of using text to create, disseminate, and evaluate knowledge, and it is that the new standards are asking us to teach § Goal is to apprentice students into the disciplines § What is different across the disciplines?

Increasing Specialization of Literacy

Sources of Disciplinary Literacy Comparisons of expert readers and novice readers’ practices (Bazerman, 1985; Geisler, 1994; Wineburg, 1991, etc. ) Expert Readers Functional Linguistics Analyses of the disciplinary texts (Fang, 2004; Halliday, 1998; Schleppegrell, 2004, etc. )

Example of Expert Reader Study Wineburg’s (1991) study of history reading: § Sourcing: considering the author and author perspective § Contextualizing: placing documents within their historical period and place § Corroboration: evaluating information across sources

Generalizable vs. Specialized Skills Content area reading is based on the idea that reading and writing are highly generalizable skills Thus, literacy can be taught with the texts and content of any field and the same approaches can be applied across the disciplines But disciplinary literacy focuses not on what is the same across the disciplines, but what is unique or specialized

Generalizable vs. Specialized Skills (cont. ) Content area literacy instruction provides students with a “toolbox” of strategies to use whenever text is encountered. Disciplinary literacy strategies come out of the demands of the text and the purposes of the discipline.

MULTIPLE TEXTS In social studies/history, one of the major features of reading is that it focuses on multiple texts and multiple perspectives

Scientists were skeptical of the idea of multiple texts Disciplinary Literacy and Text Choice – Scientists In science important to have a single accurate authoritative source Not particularly interested in critical responses to school text Their own reading procedures emphasize critical response when reading texts on high knowledge topics and less on other topics (Bazerman, 1985; Shanahan, et al. , 2011)

Disciplinary Literacy and Text Choice -Historians were not anti-textbook— they thought textbooks could play an important role in social studies instruction However, across several studies, the historians are unified in the idea that history cannot be taught with single texts The nature of history and the major research approaches used in history (i. e. , collecting multiple accounts of events) require multiple texts

Why multiple texts in social studies? § Multiple texts are necessary when… +Evidence is unclear +People disagree about the interpretation of evidence +Evidence is incomplete +Interpretation of evidence is biased +Evidence lacks coherence § These conditions tend to exist in history, political science/civics, economics, geography, etc.

Civics? The answer to many questions are contested § When citizens exercise the right to vote, they need to be informed, but information is often not clear and different sources disagree. e. g. , “People disagree about whether or not the party system outdated, or the interpretation of free speech. ”

Economics? The answer to many questions are contested • Do you favor supply side or demand side economics? • What will happen if tariffs go up? • What will be the effect on our economy if the economy of a major country collapses? • Is it better to invest individual stocks or index funds? • The answers to these questions are contested.

Geography? The answer to many questions are contested • How does an area’s topography effect its economy? • What causes the migration of peoples?

History Example: Tonkin Gulf Incident

The Incident On August 2, three North Vietnamese PT boats allegedly shot at the U. S. S. Maddox while it was on patrol off the North Vietnamese coastline in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, while the Maddox and a companion ship, the C. Turner Joy, were again on patrol, there were reports of another attack. President Johnson ordered a retaliatory strike and asked Congress to pass the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Tonkin Gulf Resolution) to give him the authority to “take all necessary steps, including armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requested assistance in defense of its freedom. ” This resolution was passed. Johnson used this approval to commit the U. S. to heavy involvement in the Vietnam War. “Hawks” (those who were supporters of the war) and “Doves” (those who were against the war) disagreed about what actually happened and about President Johnson’s motivations in handling the incident. The disagreement still exists.

Dean Rusk: As I Saw It Dean Rusk was the Secretary of State during the Tonkin Gulf Incident. He was a “Hawk” who believed that a war with Vietnam could be won.

Philip Davidson: Secrets of the Vietnam War Davidson was a former CIA agent in Vietnam and a self-proclaimed military historian. His book on Vietnam was privately published. His case about the Tonkin Gulf rested on the text of an intercepted telegram.

Carol Berkin, et al. : Making America A group of historians authored a college level textbook from which the excerpt came.

Gareth Porter: The Tonkin Gulf Gareth Porter was a historian from City University of New York. His essay was printed on the op-ed page of the Washington Post. His previous works included an annotated 2 volume set of original documents about Vietnam Porter is rebutted in a subsequent editorial written by a military historian at Berkeley.

Robert S. Mc. Namara: In Retrospect Robert Mc. Namara was Secretary of Defense during the Tonkin Gulf Incident. He left the Johnson administration after coming to believe that the conflict was not winnable. He wrote this book 20 years later.

The positions President manipulated Congress N. Vietnam attacked U. S. ships U. S. provoked N. Vietnam Yes No No Maybe No No Porter No Maybe Berkin, et al. No Yes Mc. Namara No No No Rusk Davidson

What happens when students are taught to read multiple texts? § Texts as Truth � Texts as Arguments § Reflection about ambiguities § Low level, general strategies � Discipline specific strategies § Single text comprehension � Cross-text comparisons § More reasoned arguments (Hynd-Shanahan, Holschuh, & Hubbard 2005) § Better essays (Manderino, 2007; Newman, 2008)

Change in Belief about Knowledge Colin: “I guess it is a tough task for historians to do. I think historians, even though they try to be as neutral as possible, there’s some bias that is there as a human being. I guess you could try, but it’s hard. When historians research a topic, that topic interests historians to begin with, and that interest comes from their parents, maybe. They’re unaware of it…. Not even having good solid reason, you automatically have some stance. And I guess that influences partially what they research on and the stance they take. I don’t think there’s 100% neutrality. That’s impossible. ”

Changes in Strategies Before Rereading and memorization of facts. Anna: “ I approached reading the world history text like any other text, read the pre-questions, read the sections, and put the books down. ” After Anna: “I like the way I am thinking as I am reading. I’m reading and analyzing all these things I’ve read before and comparing them while I’m reading. It’s kind of weird, but it’s cool. My brain is working overtime and extending its capabilities so that’s good. I like things that really make you think, and this subject does just that. There is no real answer, so you have to analyze everything yourself and come up with your own conclusions. ”

Reflections about Ambiguities Shelly: “(I take into account) who they are and what role they had and who they know in Vietnam and if they had any involvement because one of them was involved, so you have to take that into consideration. I think experience gives you more of an edge about what’s going on. You know it happened if you’re there, but I don’t know…That gives you a first hand thing. I don’t know…. People who have involvement, they’re going to make themselves or the people who are affiliated with them look, you know, not look as bad, so they’re a little sketchy in terms of reading what they put down so, I don’t know. Historians, they can have biases too. ”

Sourcing § Sidney Poitier writes a biographical Time Magazine article (April 6, 2004) about Oprah Winfrey entitled “Oprah Winfrey: Her influence has reached far and wide. ” § Oprah. com presents Oprah’s life through photos, videos, and important milestones. § Bill Keller, internet evangelist, discusses his view that Oprah is “the most dangerous women in the world” on a Fox News interview.

Looking Outside the Text +Contextualization--noting +The time period and what was happening +The purpose for which it was written +Where it appeared +the type of text (argument, narrative, etc. )

Contextualization § “Why we know Iraq is lying, ” by Condaleeza Rice, New York Times, January 3, 2003. Iraq § “Bush and Blair deny fixed Iraq reports, ” by Elisabeth Bumiller, New York Times, June 8, 2005. Iraq 2 § “Coming late to the table, ” by Op Ed Columnist Bob Herbert, New York Times, May 31, 2008 (about Scott Mc. Clellan’s new book). Iraq 3

Inquiry Chart

Inquiry Chart (cont. )

Teach Students to Ask Questions When They Read § Who is the author? Can I trust what he/she says? Why or why not? § Who was the author writing to? Why? § When did the author write it? Does that make a difference? § Do others agree? If not, who is more credible? § What does the author say that makes him/her believable?

Multiple Text Discussion Web § Who is the author? Can I trust what he/she says? Why or why not? § Who was the author writing to? Why? § When did the author write it? Does that make a difference? § Do others agree? If not, who is more credible? § What does the author say that makes him/her believable?

Multiple Text Discussion Web § Who is the author? Can I trust what he/she says? Why or why not? § Who was the author writing to? Why? § When did the author write it? Does that make a difference? § Do others agree? If not, who is more credible? § What does the author say that makes him/her believable?

Multiple Text Gist Article Title ____________________ Article Source ___________________ 1. Read the article. 2. Describe the 5 Ws and H (Who, What, Where When, Why How) 3. Write a 20 -word GIST. ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ Article Title ____________________ Article Source ___________________ 1. Read the article. 2. Fill out the 5 Ws and H. 3. Write a 20 -word GIST that incorporates the first article. ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ + ETC.

Multiple Gist Text Set • Chart of slaves owned by Jackson • Text of Jackson’s inauguration • Bank Veto Speech

Cases § Anna, (9 th grade) low C student who completed multiple gist strategy § Frances, (9 th grade) B student who did not complete gist strategy

Anna’s final essay I don’t believe Jackson lived up to his ideals. Jackson believed in a government by the people and a strong government (anchor text). Jackson was a strong president but maybe too strong. Jackson believed in individual rights (anchor text) yet had many slaves (chart) and did not give that much power to the people.

Frances’final essay The cartoon or king is stepping on the Constitution of the united States and on the Bank of Internal improvements and is holding a veto in his hand showing the main ones for King Andrew the first. On the Indians removal in 1831 to 1840 wanted to remain on the land of their fathers. …

Multiple Text Summary § Advantages of multiple texts? +Readers can have a more sophisticated or nuanced view of the topic. +Readers have to integrate information, requiring thinking that is more sophisticated, leading to more informed decision making. + Readers are more protected from bias, more critical of it. § But sophisticated reading of multiple texts doesn’t happen without instruction.

Let’s Break for Discussion +Are you currently using multiple text to teach? +How is that going? Are there problems with it? +Do you have the texts that you need? +If you are not currently using multiple texts, do you see opportunities where you could? +What support would you need to do so?

Vocabulary +Social studies requires an understanding of vocabulary from history, civics, economics, and geography

Students need to learn terminology in all fields Content Area Vocabulary The same study techniques would accomplish this no matter what the words Graphic organizers, semantic maps, word sorts, rate knowledge of words, analyze semantic features of words, categorizing/mapping words, synonym webs, etc.

Focus is on specialized nature of vocabulary of the subjects Disciplinary Literacy Vocabulary Science: Greek and Latin roots (precise, dense, stable meanings that are recoverable) Graphic organizers, semantic maps, word sorts, rate knowledge of words, analyze semantic features of words, categorizing/mapping words, synonym webs, etc.

Nature of Disciplinary Vocabulary Discipline Vocabulary features History Metaphorical terms, terms with political points of view e. g. , War of Northern Aggression vs. War Between the States vs. Civil War; The Gilded Age; Revolutionary Movements vs. Soviet Expansionism Science Greek and Latin Roots (precise, dense, stable meanings that are recoverable, show relationships). E. g. , deoxyribonucleic; haploid; diploid Math Words with precise definitions that are different than general meanings e. g. , factor, prime Literature Words describing emotions, states of mind, the senses e. g. , paroxysm, “the insane joy of the hunt, when as I climb the rock, my face contorted, gasping, shouting voluptuously senseless words

Morphology Differs by Discipline § Of course, different disciplines use different words § But the frequency or value of prefixes, suffixes, and (especially) combining forms differs by discipline § See: Word ID: Assessment Across the Content Areas by Linda Gutlohn & Frances Besselieu

Prefixes ELA Math Science Soc Studies com- X X con- X X de- X X dis- X X ex- X X X X inter- X pre- X pro- X X re- X X sub- X X transun- X X X

Derivational Suffixes -al ELA Math Science Soc Studies X X X -ary X -ate X X -ation X X X -ent -ic X X -ism -ist X -ity X X -ive X X -ize X X X -ment X X

Derivational Suffixes (cont. ) ELA Math -or Science Soc Studies X X -sion X X X X -ture X X

Greek Combining Forms ELA ana Math Science Soc Studies X arch X auto X bio X chem X X cracy, crat X dem, demo X eco X electro, elect X endo X geo X gon X gram X X

Greek Combining Forms (cont. ) ELA graph Math X hedron X X X meter, metr X X micro nym, onym X X X photo poly X X -oid para Soc Studies X hydro logy (ology) Science X X scope X sphere X X

Greek Combining Forms (cont. ) ELA symsyn- Math X X X therm, thermo tri- Science X X Soc Studies

Morpheme Frequency Social Studies • Gutlohn & Bessellieu (2014) examined frequency of morphemes in 4500 multisyllabic content area words to identify the morpheme frequency • Half the morphemes occurred across content areas, though the words they appeared in may be content specific § The following morphemes were only frequent in social studies text: ist, arch, auto, bio, cracy, crat, demo, eco, graph § These are common to social studies and one other subject: dis, ary, ism, or, ture, geo, sphere

Teach Students to Use Reference Works Dictionary usage But also, more specialized reference works from a field of study

Sugar example, general dictionary Sugar: a sweet crystalline substance obtained from various plants, especially sugar cane and sugar beet, consisting essentially of sucrose, and used as a sweetener in food and drink.

Sugar example, science dictionary +Sugar: (saccharide) Any of a group of water soluble carbohydrates of relatively low molecular weight and having a sweet taste. The simple sugars are called monosaccharides. More complex sugars comprise between two and ten monosaccharides linked together: disaccharides contain two, trisaccharides, three, and so on. The name is often used to refer specifically to sucrose (cane or beet sugar). The suffix -ose is used in biochemistry to form the names of sugars.

Sugar example, science dictionary +Sugar: (saccharide) Any of a group of water soluble carbohydrates of relatively low molecular weight and having a sweet taste. The simple sugars are called monosaccharides. More complex sugars comprise between two and ten monosaccharides linked together: disaccharides contain two, trisaccharides, three, and so on. The name is often used to refer specifically to sucrose (cane or beet sugar). The suffix -ose is used in biochemistry to form the names of sugars.

Battleship example, general dictionary Battleship: any of a class of warships that are the most heavily armored and are equipped with the most powerful armament.

Battleship example, general dictionary Battleship: U. S. battleship is usually distinguished from its foreign counterparts by its heavy gun armament, sturdy protection, and relatively slow speed. Three distinct subtypes: 27 mixed-battery ships built 1888 -1908; 22 all-big-gun “dreadnoughts” (1910 -1923); and 10 fast battleships (1937 -1944). Stricken from the Navy’s lists in January 1995. As ship killers, the battleships saw little action; yet they ultimately justified their existence in important subsidiary missions, the most significant being gunfire support for troops ashore.

Battleship example, general dictionary Battleship: U. S. battleship is usually distinguished from its foreign counterparts by its heavy gun armament, sturdy protection, and relatively slow speed. Three distinct subtypes: 27 mixed-battery ships built 1888 -1908; 22 all-big-gun “dreadnoughts” (1910 -1923); and 10 fast battleships (1937 -1944). Stricken from the Navy’s lists in January 1995. As ship killers, the battleships saw little action; yet they ultimately justified their existence in important subsidiary missions, the most significant being gunfire support for troops ashore.

Some Special Ways to Teach Social Studies Literacy § Because what students need to learn about literacy in social studies is unique or highly specialized, it is essential that social studies teachers have ways of addressing these needs § Some of these have already been demonstrated in terms of multiple texts, sourcing, and text analysis § But there are others

SOAPStone § Speaker : Who wrote this account? § Occasion : When was it written? § Audience : Who was this written for? § Purpose : Why was this written? § Subject : What is the topic/focus? § Tone : What is the attitude of the speaker to the topic and the audience?

G-SPRITE § Geographical (location, physical, movement, human/ environment, region) § Social (family, gender relations, social classes, inequalities, lifestyles) § Political (leaders, elites, state structure, war, diplomacy, treaties, courts, laws) § Religious (holy books, beliefs, teachings, conversion, sin, salvation, deities) § Intellectual (art, music, literature, philosophy, math & science, education) § Technological (technology, industry, tools, machines) § Economic (type of system, trade, commerce, trade, capital, money, types of businesses)

Functional Linguistics: Nature of Text • History text constructs time and causation • Attributes agency (readers need to focus on the reasons for actions and the outcomes of those actions—cause/effect) • Presents judgment and interpretation (argument) • Often narratives with lack of clear connections to thesis • History also constructs participants/actors and the processes that they engaged in to move towards their goals.

Texts are different: History texts depict…. § § § § Time Place Manner Actors Goals Processes/tactics Cause/effect Agency +History texts present judgment and interpretation

History Reading (Fang & Schleppergrel) Clause Circumstance Actor Process Over the next decade, further events steadily led 2 Some colonial leaders, such as Samuel Adams favored independence from Britain. 3 They encouraged conflict with British authorities. George III and his ministers made enemies of many moderate Colonists 1 4 At the same time, Goal Circum. to war by their harsh stands

Texts are different: History After the successful Montgomery bus boycott, the Civil Rights Movement became emboldened in their quest for equality, and Martin Luther King felt ready to head it, founding the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and becoming its first president.

Texts are different: History After the successful Montgomery bus boycott, the Civil Rights Movement became emboldened in their quest for equality, and Martin Luther King felt ready to head it, founding the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and becoming its first president. Time = Red; Place = Green; Actors = Blue; goal = purple; tactics = orange; cause/effect = highlight; agency = brown

The American Revolution

THE FALL OF FORT TICONDEROGA After the battles of Lexington and Concord, the British army stayed in Boston. The American forces camped around Boston, waiting for the British to move. Meanwhile, a young New Englander named Benedict Arnold had been appointed to lead 400 soldiers at Fort Ticonderoga in New York. After arriving there, he joined forces with Vermont’s rough and rugged Ethan Allen led a group of rebels called the “Green Mountain Boys. ” Before dawn on May 10, 1775, the Americans attacked Fort Ticonderoga. The British were sleeping peacefully. Allen woke up the commander by banging on his door and shouting, “Come out of there, you old rat!” The Americans captured the fort without firing a shot. Inside, they found something they needed desperately— heavy iron cannons.

THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL A month later on the night of June 16, British troops in Boston heard strange noises on nearby Charlestown Peninsula. When the sun rose, they could not believe their eyes. The day before, the peninsula had been empty. Now its two small hills—Bunker Hill and nearby Breed’s Hill—were alive with Americans. In just one night they had built a fort of dirt and logs on Breed’s Hill. The British knew they had to attack quickly. If the Americans could drag the cannons taken at Fort Ticonderoga up to the hilltops, they would be able to pound Boston and the British ships in the harbor. On the next day 2, 000 of the king’s troops lined up at the base of Breed’s Hill. General William Howe ordered them to march to the top and take the American fort. The Redcoats sweated heavily in the hot June sun as they struggled up Breed’s Hill. In the hilltop fort, fingers tightened on triggers. Fighting to control their fear, the Americans reported their order—“Don’t fire till you see the whites of their eyes. ” As the red line of troops moved closer, a gray-haired farmer prayed, “I thank thee, O Lord, for sparing me to fight this day. ”

When the British were almost on top of them, the Americans fired. Huge gaps appeared in the line of redcoats. The surprised British fell back and then made a second attack. Again they were mowed down by American gunfire. General Howe regrouped his men and sent them up the hill a third time. Once more, the Redcoats’ front line was ripped apart by gunfire. As soldiers in the back lines advanced, they tripped over their fallen comrades. But this time the British troops reached the top. By now the Americans had run out of gunpowder and were retreating to safer ground. The canons captured at Fort Ticonderoga had never left New York. By evening the British had taken over the Charlestown Peninsula. But as the dead and wounded were counted, General Howe found that the victory had been “too dearly bought. ” He had lost more than 1, 000 soldiers that day. The Americans had lost over 400. Even though most of the fighting took place on Breed’s Hill, this bloody conflict was remembered as the Battle of Bunker Hill. After that battle, the British would never again doubt that Americans could and would fight.

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS While New England went to war, representatives from the colonies were meeting in Philadelphia. This was the Second Continental Congress. John Adams asked the Congress to set up a “Grand American Army” with troops from every colony. To lead this army, Adams suggested “a gentleman whose skill as an officer…would command respect of America. ” The man was George Washington of Virginia. The Congress asked Washington to serve as commander-in-chief of the new Continental Army. Washington agreed, saying he would use “every power I possess… for the support of the glorious cause. ” Adams believed that the colonies should declare their independence, or complete freedom, from Great Britain. But the Congress was not ready to take such a step. Most Americans still felt loyal to King George III. The idea of independence scared them. The Congress tried to make peace and voted to send another petition to King George III. This petition asked the king to help end the war. It was called the Olive Branch Petition because the olive branch is the symbol of peace. King George refused to read the petition from what he called an “illegal congress. ” He saw the actions of the Congress as treason. In Britain the punishment of treason was death.

WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND As George Washington rode toward Boston he knew that the odds were against him. How, he wondered, could the colonies stand up to Britain—the world’s most powerful country? How could rebel farmers defeat the world’s strongest army and navy? Yet Great Britain faced two large problems. One was distance—America lay across a vast ocean. Sending troops and supplies across the Atlantic Ocean was both slow and costly. Britain’s second problem was the size of the colonies. To crush the rebellion, the British would have to take control of a huge territory. Washington also faced great problems. The Continental Army was poorly trained and lacked supplies. The colonies did not have a navy. Worse still, many people did not support the war. Only about two fifths of the colonists called themselves Patriots and supported the fight against Britain. One fifth were Loyalists, people who felt loyal to Great Britain and opposed the war. The remaining two fifths did not take sides and could not be counted on to fight. Early in July 1775, General Washington took command of the troops camped around Boston. Everywhere he looked he saw “confusion and disorder. ” Men obeyed only those orders they liked. Washington worked hard to bring order to the army. Soon one soldier wrote, “Everyone is made to know his place and keep it… It is surprising how much work has been done!”

THE BRITISH LEAVE BOSTON For months nothing happened. The British hoped the Patriots would grow tired of their rebellion and go home. To Washington’s dismay, many of his troops did just that. The Americans hoped that King George III would pull his troops out of Boston. Instead, he hired German mercenaries to help crush the rebellion. Mercenaries are soldiers hired to fight in another country’s war. Washington desperately needed cannons to drive the British out of Boston. He finally sent a former bookseller, Henry Knox, to get the iron cannons that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga. Somehow Knox’s men loaded 59 huge cannons onto sleds. Then they dragged them for more than 300 miles (480 km) across the snowy hills and frozen rivers to Boston. On March 4, 1776, Boston awoke to a surprise. The day before, nearby Dorchester Heights had been bare hills. Then overnight those hills had sprouted cannons—cannons aimed at the city. The British general announced that if the Americans did not allow him to leave peacefully, he would destroy Boston. Washington wisely agreed to let the British troops move out. A few days later the redcoats sailed for Canada. With them went over 1, 000 American loyalists.

A GOOD BEGINNING American Patriots were overjoyed by this news. In the past year, they had shown the British they could fight. They had formed a Continental Army with George Washington as their leader. And they had driven the British out of the colonies. Many people thought the war was over. But Washington knew better. The British would be back. Still, the Patriots had made a good beginning.

History Events Chart TEXT WHO? 1 Relation: 2 Relation: 3 Relation 4 Main point: WHAT? WHERE? WHEN? WHY?

History Events Chart TEXT WHO? Fall of Fort American Ticonderoga forces (Arnold & Allen) & British forces WHAT? Americans capture Fort Ticonderoga WHERE? New York WHEN? May 10, 1775 WHY? Americans capture cannons Relation: Americans finally had cannons, but failed to get them from NY to Boston. Battle of Bunker Hill American forces & British forces British win the battle. Boston June 16, 1775 Relation: American army has to be unified if they are going to win. Americans failed to get cannons to Boston

Some History Literacy Resources Stanford History Education Group +http: //sheg. stanford. edu/rlh Teaching Channel +https: //www. teachingchannel. org/videos/reading-like-ahistorian-repetition Project READI +http: //www. projectreadi. org/ Historical Scene Investigation +https: //hsi. wm. edu/

Sam Wineburg, Daisy Martin, & Chauncey Monte-Sano