PROCESS History of Process Movement According to history

PROCESS

History of Process Movement According to history, the field of written rhetoric, which came to be called “composition” has been traced back in 500 B. C. However, writing in English became the focus instead of Latin and Greek.

Most of educational establishments brought new population of lessprivileged students who had not studied classical languages and therefore can only write in vernacular language which is English.

Writing became more important, and so the task of teaching writing was founded in various institution. Different writing classes was also developed. Harvard University also included an entrance exam featuring writing as a requirement.

First-year writing course burst in, but it was soon realized that the crash course failed to provide solution to the problem and created a huge work to deal with by the faculty who undertook the task of reading and responding to the student texts.

As time took by, a new form of textbook was born called the “handbook”. Handbook became popular and soon every publisher had developed their own version.

Learning to write in those times were like figuring out what the teacher expects the students to write wherein the student must passed work that is acceptable to the teacher’s expectations.

Over the past thirty years, the discipline of rhetoric and composition has emphasized the importance of helping students become active participants learning to write.

Jerome Bruner has maintained that to instruct someone in a discipline is not a matter of getting him to commit results to minds. Knowledge is a process, not a product.

In history, however, classical rhetoricians were aware how much thought and time of preparation is needed to produce an excellent speech.

In ancient Greece and Rome, rhetoricians also envisioned the composing process as consisting of five stages – invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.

The Birth of the Process “Movement”ssss is the productoriented view of writing continued throughout but then, at the Conference of College Composition and Communication, it is reported that there was a different feeling in the air, a feeling that the field has already changed.

INFLUENCES ON THE CONCEPT OF PROCESS TEACHING New Education Movement (early 1960 s) Jerome Bruner viewed learning as a process that reflected “the cognitive level of the student and its relation to the structure of the academic discipline being studied” (Berlin, 1990, p. 207) and emphasized the role of student’s participation and individual discovery in the learning process.

DARTMOUTH CONFERENCE OF 1966 A meeting of approximately 520 English teachers from the United States and Great Britain Awareness that considerable differences existed between two countries on how instruction in English was viewed.

In United States, English was an academic discipline with specific content to he mastered. In Britain, it focused on the personal and linguistic growth of the child.

The result of the conference was to reassert for U. S teachers the value of the expressive model of writing. Writing is to be pursued in a free and supportive environment in which the student is encouraged to engage in an act of self discovery. (Berline, 1990)

RE-EMERGENCE OF INTEREST RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION On 1971, James Kinneavy published “A Theory of Discourse” This work helped legitimize composition as a genuine research field and suggested that anyone who is serious about teaching writing should be studying rhetoric.

WHAT DOES IT ACTUALLY MEAN TO VIEW WRITING AS A PROCESS? Broadly speaking, a process approach to writing and teaching of writing means devoting increase attention to writers and the activities in which writers engage when they create and produce texts, as opposed to analyzing and attempting to reproduce texts.

THE STAGES OF WRITING In the early days, ‘‘planning, drafting and revising’’ Today, ‘‘preventing, writing and rewriting’’

In this model, discovery and creativity entered the process only in terms of the writers’ decision about how to say what has been discovered not in discovery and selecting what to say.

The problem with this linear view of writing as a series of discreet stages is that it does not reflect what writers actually do, because writers frequently discover and reconsider ideas during, as well as before that write, moving back and forth between the prewriting, writing and rewriting.

EARLY RESEARCH IN COMPOSING Observational Studies 1971, Janet Emig published “The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders. ” Sandra Perl describes the first study to ask a process-oriented question, “How do 12 th-graders write? ” Theory of Composing

THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (Jerome Bruner) Aims to understand an observable behavior, (such as writing) one must understand the mental structures that determine the behavior. One must understand how these structures develop as an individual matures and acquires knowledge of the world.

“Reflexive”-that is, personal, writing in the classroom, based on students’ own experiences and feelings.

DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS This notion that the development of writing ability correlates with human linguistic and intellectual development resulted in a number of publications that suggested that the English curriculum should parallel the sequence in which that development was presumed

James Moffett’s Teaching the Universe of Discourse(1968) and Student. Centered Language Arts Curriculum (1968): audience scale –Reflection, Conversation, Correspondence, and Publication; subject scale –the writer or speaker is from the subject being considered. These help the students recreate their experience through language and enables them to develop the facility in writing.

The Development of Writing Abilities (pp. 11 -18) Sequential development characterizes all mature written utterances and then go on to trace the developmental steps that leads to them. Transactional is a type of writing that is most likely to foster the development of Writing ability.

Linda Flower “Writer-Based Prose: A Cognitive Basis for Problems in Writing” 1979 states that texts that reflect what might be in their writer’s minds at the time of writing but that have not been sufficiently contextualized. This can be used to help novice writers transform “writerbased” to “reader-based” prose

Andrea Lunsford “Cognitive Development and the Basic Writer” (1979), claimed that the difficulties novice or “basic” writers have with writing is because of their not having reached a level of cognitive development that would enable

Flower and Hayes: “The Cognition of Discovery: Defining A Rhetorical Problem”(1980) Writing process is linear and is based on four points:

The process of writing is best understood as a set of distinctive think process that writers orchestrate or organize during the act of composing. These processes have hierarchical, highly embedded organization in which any process can be embedded within any other.

The act of composing itself is a goal -directed thinking process, guided by writer’s own growing network of goals. Writers create their own goals in two key ways: by generating both highlevel goals and supporting subgoals that embody the writer’s developing sense of purpose, and then, at times, by changing major goals or even establishing new ones based on what has been learned in the act

Used the technique of Protocols (having students speak aloud as they compose)

EXPRESSIVISM OR ROMANTICISM Language that reveals students’ thoughts and feelings. In this, the discovery of personal voice is attained. The teacher assigns essays concerned with personal experience and self-reflection and will yield to “authenticity and selfempowerment.

A teacher could assign a personal essay but ignore the writing process or assign a critical analysis yet nurture the process. Social Constructionism believes that individual consciousness is shaped by culture through language. Writing is socially constructed because it reflects and shapes. It focus on the social context of writing and the role of community in

Macrorie (1970) With this approach, the students can use their own powers, make their discoveries, and to make alterantive path. Donald Graves (1983) referred to voice as infusing a text with the writer’s presence. It is a necessary prerequisite of growth. According to Elbow it constitutes both a motivating force and a source of power.

Collaborative Learning develops more practicality than on philosophical or theoretical perspective. This include peer editing and writing groups. Students learn only when they have assumed responsibility for their own learning. This is maximize through the following:

Model the activity by first engaging in it yourself in front of the class. Before putting students into groups for peer editing, ask students to volunteer a paper to be edited, or use one from another class. Make copies for the class and demonstrate how you expect students to proceed.

Determine the procedures for group work, such as whether students should read papers silently or aloud, how many copies of the paper students should bring in, how much time should be allotted for each paper, and the sort of comments that should be encouraged. Assign the groups yourself through ramdom selection.

CRITICISM OF THE PROCESS MOVEMENTS The process movement resulted in important developments in the teaching of writing, notably a flowering of interest in composition pedagogy, the creation of an established research discipline concerned with writing and the teaching of writing, the realization that people learn to write by actually writing and revising, rather than by completing decontextualized exercises, and a renewed attention to individualized instruction. relationship between writers and audience” (Williams)

However, although recognizing its pedagogical importance, some critics maintain that because “the process model focuses on writers and their psychological states. . . it offers little insight into the relationship between writers and audience” (Williams)

POST-PROCESS THEORY Recently, criticism of the process movement has been manifested in literature concerned with “post-process theory, ”

WHAT DOES IT MEAN? It refers to the idea that the process movement is no longer pertinent, either theoretically or pedagogically. In Post. Process Theory: Beyond the Writing. Process Paradigm (1999), Thomas Kent asserts that because every communication act requires the writer to “guess” how a text will affect a reader, it is impossible to model communication,

and, therefore, there is no writing process that can be presented in the classroom. “No single course can teach a student how to produce or analyze discourse, ” Kent maintains, “for the hermeneutic guessing required in all discourse production and analysis can only be refined; it cannot be codified and then taught.

GENRE THEORY AND THE CONCEPT OF PROCESS This perspective emphasizes that the progressive classroom, with its focus on individual expression and personal voice, has not resulted in writing improvement in those groups who were most in need of improvement.

WRITING ASSIGNMENT Understanding Yourself as a Writer > one way to move away from writing habits that have not worked well for you in the past is to understand what type of writer you are.

Writers Who Plan in Advance >These people tend to think about their ideas and plan in their minds or on paper before they begin to write. *Writers Who Discover Ideas Through Writing >These writers use writing to find out what they want to say, planning and

Writers Who Spend Equal Time on Planning, Writing and Revising > Some writers divide the wroting task into stages, a method that is probably the most effective in writing a college essay as long as adequate time is allowed for

Writers Who Delay >These writers sometimes stay up all night trying to write a complete draft of a paper and thus when they submit their work, they are submitting a first draft, not usually their best work.

Writers Who Delay >These writers sometimes stay up all night trying to write a complete draft of a paper and thus when they submit their work, they are submitting a first draft, not usually their best work.

CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDELINES 1. Select the "teacher volunteer" whose class you plan to observe. 2. Plan to observe at least three successive class meetings or a total of four class meetings over a 3 -week period. 3. Contact the teacher (via telephone, email or mail) and make certain that you will be the only observer in the

4. Find out if the teacher has any preference regarding your "role" as observer in his/her class. 5. During your first observation, take as many notes as you feel are necessary provide you with a full record of your experience. 6. During second and subsequent observations, focus on what you consider to be most informative and important insights you have gained.

7. If possible , have a short "debriefing" session with the instructor when yiu have finished the sequence of observations. 8. Be sure to arrive on time for the class. Do not leave until the class has ended.

POINTS TO NOTE WHEN OBSERVING COMPOSITION CLASSES Physical Arrangement of Class Atmosphere in Classroom/Classroom Dynamics The lesson Students behaviors

*what kind of writing are the students doing? *how many students are participating? *what are students who are not participating?

*are students reading their work aloud? *are students speaking to one another? *are students working in groups? *how are students reacting to day's agenda and topic?

TEACHER BEHAVIORS *what sort of voice does the teacher use? *has the teacher engaged the students? *what kind of working relationship does the teacher have with the students?

*what is the evidence that suggests the kind of working relationship? *what does the teacher do when students participate or ask questions? Characterize the teacher's strategies for listening and promoting

Teacher Activities *presenting the assignment/lesson. *modelling a particular writing strategy. *teacher addressing class as a whole.

*teacher addressing as a small group. *teacher speaking with an individual students. *teacher presenting the lesson.

KEEPING A REFLECTIVE WRITING JOURNAL > A reflective writing journal will enable you to recall writing experiences in your past, from which you can develop your own "theory" of writing.

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR ENTRIES INTO REFLECTIVE WRITING JOURNAL: 1. Discuss your history as a writer, focusing on particular highlights. 2. Describe your own writing process. 3. Write about one of your best teacher.

4. Find some examples of what you feel is "good writing". What makes this good writing? 5. What have you chosen to study rhetoric and compostion?

THANK YOU FOR LISTENING! GOD BLESS YOU!

“We can think because we can talk, and we think in ways we have learned to talk” (Bruffee 1984)

FOREVER OR FORNEVER: What do you think?