The Development of Ideologies I Political Ideologies Systematic

The Development of Ideologies I

Political Ideologies �Systematic belief systems that mobilize people into action �Pragmatic applications of normative theories �An ideology is a more or less consistent set of beliefs about the nature of the society in which individuals live, and about the proper role of the state in establishing and maintaining that society

Ideologies �“An ideology may be—but need not necessarily be— coherent, systematic, and rational. If it is fairly persistent and pervasive, in the sense that a particular point of view or orientation occurs whenever an individual, group, or organization engages in action or discussion on any given subject, the bias takes on the shape of an ideology” (Groth, 1971: 1) �An ideology is a value or belief system accepted as fact or truth by some group. �Ideologies mobilize people into action, transcending differences in class, race, ethnicity, and culture

The Birth of Ideologies �Classical Liberalism was first systematic ideology; opposed the existence and dominance of elites in society �Aimed to overthrow/replace the Organic Hierarchy of Medieval Society 1. Organic Hierarchy: structure of society is marked by unequal resources and power; it is organic in that the various components were linked by mutual obligation and duty 2. Feudal Society: very rigid, not reflective of social mobility. Social positions—high or low—were inherited, and with it a set of obligations and rights specific to the rank 3. Transformation of Feudalism varied; Britain: end of 17 th century; France: 1789; Germany: mid-19 th century Key Question: How and Why was the System of Feudalism Dismantled?

The Reformation �Attack on natural law and divine right �Attack on intellectual unity and hegemony of Roman Catholic Church prevalent in the Middle Ages �Initiated moral revolution: poverty was no longer seen as virtuous; accumulation of wealth become widely viewed as manifestation of upright character �Weakness of Church allowed other socio-political changes to develop; move from Christian pluralism to secularism �Rulers used religion as a useful pretense, or the basis of a duty, to make war against rulers of the opposite conviction �Challenge to the religious and theological status quo took political form—Revolution against the traditional (Catholic Church)

The Enlightenment: The Age of Reason Its central premise: human experience—whether in the natural world or social life, is accessible to human reason and explicable in rational terms. �Introduced processes of manufacturing and reorganization of social labor around the production for the market �individuals have the ability to reason: popular sovereignty and individual rights �constitutionalism and introduction of liberal democracy �age of skepticism: disposition to take nothing for granted; to question and challenge existing ways of thought �adoption of scientific methodology �Revolution against traditional philosophy and science

The Market Economy The exchange of goods, services, and labor in transactions between individuals. �Prompted decline of feudal order: immediate consumption or authoritative transfer of goods and services �Number of buyers and sellers grew �Development of merchant middle class �Economic production for the purpose of exchange: move from use to exchange production �Individuals obtain the goods for consumption in market place �Market economy moves beyond producing basic utensils, tools, and luxury items �Ordinary individuals became concerned with the acquisition of wealth

The Politics of Ideologies The transformative role of the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and the Market Economy required new beliefs to justify the new and undermine the traditional �An ideology is a comprehensive set of beliefs and attitudes about social and economic institutions and processes �Ideologies are used to defend or alter a political system or order; it can provide a defense or critique �Ideologies address a variety of issues, among the we can usually find the following:

Beliefs about Society and the Place of Individuals A. Human nature B. Relationship of individual to society C. The role of God/the Church in society D. Hierarchy versus Equality

Beliefs about the State and about the Nature and Structure of Power �The purpose of government �Form of government (structure of power), f. ex. absolute monarchy, representative democracy �Idea of Justice, i. e. the rule of law, rights, equality

Beliefs about Specific Areas of Governmental Policy �Economic policy—private versus public ownership, regulation of the market, redistribution of wealth �Social policy—education, welfare, health care �Public morality/social order—crime and punishment, firearms control, sexuality, gender, and race �Foreign policy—interventionism versus isolationism, nationalism versus internationalism/globalism

Means of Transition �Peaceful transition �Education �Revolution �Military overthrow; coup d'état

Weber’s Classification of Authority � Type Basis Example � Traditional Custom and established way of doing things Monarchy intense commitment to the leader and his message Many revolutionary leaders rules and procedures merit not connections the office, not the person bureaucracy; representative � Charismatic � Legal-Rational democracy

Classical Liberalism � The individual is more important than the state and becomes a citizen of the state only through consent � The individual is rational and capable of making his or her own decisions; this makes the individual capable of autonomy and selfgovernment � Progress and social mobility is possible; change is not to be feared � State power should be limited � Economic inequality is not necessarily bad � Economic freedom (freedom to make economic choices) is more important than economic equality � Advocates free trade based on comparative advantage: the principle that says states should specialize in trading those goods that they produce with the greatest relative efficiency and at the lowest relative cost (relative, that is, to other goods produced by the same state)

Key Assumptions of Classical Liberalism 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Valorization of the individual Role of government should be minimal; popular sovereignty Emphasis on individual rights and constitutionalism Individual political liberty is seen as important as economic liberty Laissez-faire: doctrine of minimal governmental intervention in the market upholds principles of equality before the law and equality of opportunity assumes that government, politics, and social life in general will avoid any types of extreme excesses examples: Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, John Locke

Advent of Modern Liberalism �Emerged in the early 20 th century; took off with added impetus with FDR’s New Deal in the 1930 s �Unfettered economic system exploited the poor and protected the rich �Development of concentration of capital; interfered with the “invisible hand” (Adam Smith) �J. M. Keynes—government was right to correct certain market inadequacies � 1. fiscal policies: economic policies that involve gov’t spending and taxing � 2. monetary policies: economic policies that involve control of and changes in the supply of money in a state economy

Keynesian Theory �Maintains that the government can stabilize the economy—i. e. can smooth out business cycles—by controlling the level of aggregate demand. �Aggregate demand: the money available to be spent on goods and services by consumers, businesses, and government; �Aggregate demand can be manipulated through monetary and fiscal policies

Modern Liberalism � Government intervention into individual and social life is often necessary to prevent some individuals from denying freedom to others � Liberty should be understood in broad, expansive, positive terms; as the liberty to seek out ways to develop human potential and contribute in a meaningful way to society 1. negative freedom/liberty: freedom from interference by other people; freedom of restraint; freedom to be left alone 2. positive freedom/liberty: power and resources to fulfill one’s potential; let to the development of social or welfare liberalism � Economic inequality is to be regarded with suspicion, as a condition likely to undermine the welfare of those who have lower incomes and thus to erode their chances of being free (freedom being defined as expansive liberty) 1. Redistribution of Resources: a narrowing of material inequalities brought about through a combination of progressive taxation and welfare provisions.

Libertarianism � Off-shot of classical liberalism � The belief that the realm of individual liberty should be maximized. This is commonly associated with limiting the influence of public authority (state, gov’t) in the lives of individuals. � Use of civil society and market to maintain social order and advance economic prosperity Libertarians tend to support the following policies: 1. Legalization of drugs 2. Prohibition of censorship of books and movies 3. Support for gun ownership 4. Support for abortion rights 5. Support for gay rights Libertarians: William Belsham, David Nolan, Ron Paul

Conservatism � Disposition to preserve what exists; support for the existing order/status quo � Human nature: humans are different in terms of intelligence; humans are prone to irrationality and thus need guidance by traditional authorities � Some are born to rule; have paternalistic obligation to those less fortunate. Noblesse oblige: the obligations of the nobility toward the less fortunate (responsibility of power); to protect them from severe or unduly hardship � Values community over individual; organic society: various components are linked by mutual obligations and duties � Social hierarchy –structure of unequal resources and power is natural and inevitable � Tend to emphasize religion, high standards of morality; moral teachings should be transmitted through the family, religious, and governmental institutions Examples: Plato, Edmund Burke, Benjamin Disraeli

Edmund Burke � Rejects government’s role to protect natural rights � Government should not stress the natural rights of individuals because it engenders expectations in people � Rights are too easily confused with promises of power � Government should safeguard human needs rather than natural rights � Humans have natural urge toward order and control � Humans need moral guidance to make social existence meaningful � Ethics cannot and should not be deduced from reason because reason can be used to justify good or bad moral behavior � Reason cannot be adequate for individual decision making and self-guidance � Traditional values need to replace reason; the workability of ethical norms should be derived from history � Traditional values provide foundation for moral absolutism (not moral relativism) and thus are basis for ethical certainty � Pursuit of social morality takes precedence over pursuit of individual freedom; freedom needs to be bound by common moral standards

The New Right �Counter-revolutionary movement against the post-1945 culture of interventionism and the spread of liberal, progressive social values. Rose to prominence in the 1970 s as a result of failure of Keynesian social democracy �Thatcherism and Reaganism in 1980 s �Seeks marriage of neoliberalism (return to classical economic liberalism) and neo-conservatism; objective: strong but minimal state neoliberalism: free-market economics (Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman) Nanny state: a state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that welfare programs are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual

New Right Continued �Religious Right (1988): Pat Robertson and Ralph Reed of Christian Coalition; Family Research Council (FRC) monitors political candidates for pro-family positions Public Policy Positions: 1. Antiabortion policy 2. Opposition to legalization of gay rights (extreme: gay marriage) 3. Support for school prayer 4. Opposition to sex education in public schools 5. Opposition to pornography and its commercialization 6. Social problems are caused by rampant social immorality

New Right Continued � Neoconservatives: 1. Embraces 19 th century conservative social values 2. Restore hierarchical, authoritative social order emphasizing family, religion, and the nation-state 3. supports using American economic and military power to bring liberalism, democracy, and human rights to other countries (Bush Doctrine) 4. Authoritative structures basis for social stability, discipline, and respect 5. Minimal bureaucratic welfare state acceptable 6. Economic protectionism may be necessary to preserve national interest 7. Worried about emphasis on multicultural and multireligious societies— lead to domestic conflict and instability 8. Disdain for international and supranational institutions such as the UN and the EU