The Anthropology of Language An Introduction to Linguistic

The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology Chapter 2 Language and Culture 1

Culture • In 1952, a couple of fairly famous anthropologists, Alfred Kroeber (father of Ursula K. Le Guin) and Clyde Kluckhohn, published a book containing 164 definitions of culture taken from the published work of anthropologists. Fifty-seven years later, we are still not all agreed on the topic. • One widely used definition (thanks to Max Weber and Clifford Geertz): Culture is a web of meaning which human beings weave and in which we are suspended. 2

The emic vs. etic distinction • Two equally valid perspectives from which to view human behavior, activities, values, etc. • Emic—subjectively relevant, internally verifiable • Etic—objectively identifiable, externally observable 3

Etic and Emic – an example • Etic data—things that are observable – 110° F water into mug, water swirled in mug, water poured into the sink, drink poured into mug • Emic data—the meaning of the action for the actor – He warms his coffee mug so that the coffee tastes better » Or – She tries to kill all the germs and bacteria that have accumulated in the coffee mug since its last washing 4

Ethnosemantics • 1950 s and 60 s • Frake, Goodenough, Conklin • Alternate names: – Ethnoscience, Cognitive Anthropology • Vocabulary indicates – “native” categories – Culturally important distinctions • Psychological reality or formal account? 5

Cultural emphases – What IS subjectively relevant? • Cultural emphases reflect activities, meet needs • Some universal patterns appear to exist, however • Color terms – Stages 1 -7 (Ottenheimer p. 31) • Color terms and focal points (Berlin & Kay) – Codability—how easy is it to name a color chip – Availability—how easy is it to find a given chip in a group of other chips 6

The Hanunóo case • You cannot ask, in Hanunóo, “What color is X? ” • Hanunóo are able to distinguish colors (human biological ability), but color is subsumed within an overall category of appearance. • Ethnosemantic research was required to understand how Hanunóo speakers communicate the idea of color. 7

Getting at the Emic – Doing ethnosemantic research • Creating a taxonomy – Asking questions about relationships: • Is X a kind of Y? • What other kinds of Y are there? • Are there other kinds of X? – Taxonomy about relationships • Componential analysis – Discovering key differences 8

Sapir-Whorf or Whorfian hypothesis: two versions • Strong Whorf—language determines thought, you think within the structure of your language – Agar—language as prison • Weaker Whorf—language provides habitual patterns of seeing, thinking and talking – Agar—Language as a familiar room; you know where everything is in it • Both forms of linguistic determinism 9

Which comes first? A chicken and egg problem. • Nature of cultural emphasis – Feature analysis – Prototype theory • Color categories and the search for universals – Human shared sensory apparatus – Impact of language • Agreement about differences between languages • But, do the differences in language reflect cultural differences, or create cultural differences? 10

Linguistic Determinism • Origins – “Human beings. . . are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. ” (Sapir 1929) – “we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data” (Whorf 1940) 11

Examples of Linguistic Determinism: SAE • time = matter • units of time = objects • passage of time = endless line of identical objects 12

Examples of Linguistic Determinism: Hopi • time = a process • units of time = cycles • passage of time = endless repetition of same cycle 13

Testing linguistic determinism • Tests generally comparative • Variable clearly identified • Testing availability and codability 14

Experiments in Linguistic Determinism • Yucatec – Grammar stresses material • Connects words for wood, tree, table – Individuals group cardboard items together • English – Grammar stresses shape • Different words for wood, tree, table – Individuals group boxes together 15

Further Evidence for Linguistic Determinism • Relative space vs. absolute space – Guugu-Yimidhirr • NORTH-SOUTH-EAST-WEST (absolute) – Tzeltal • UPHILL-DOWNHILL (relative) 16

Experiencing Linguistic Determinism • Temporary transfer of control – English—lend/borrow – Shinzwani—kopa • Telling time – English—it is half past nine – Czech—it is half of ten • Relative vs. absolute space – English—deictic system – Guugu-Yimidhirr—absolute system 17

Experience and imagination • Metaphor—a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance • Metonymy—a figure of speech that consists of the use of the name of one object or concept for that of another to which it is related, or of which it is a part • Frame—a system of expectations which influences experience 18

Metaphors in SAE – a set of examples • Anger as Body heat – I have a hot temper. • Body as container of emotions – I am just about up to here! – He was filled with grief. • Body as container for emotions plus Anger as heat = – Heating fluid in a container • He was boiling mad. • She was fuming. • I was steamed. – Dealt with by cooling or containing • A good workout always helps her cool her temper. • I keep my anger bottled up. – Potential for explosion, in which things go up • I blew my top. • She hit the ceiling. • He went right through the roof. 19

Metonyms in SAE – some examples • Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. • Yesterday, the White House announced… • Wall Street reacted badly to the news from Europe. • My knee is killing me. • If you like it then you should-a put a ring on it. 20

Frames – structures of expectation we use to make sense of the world • Frames make use of, and make sense of, metaphors and metonyms • Frames trump facts (Lakoff); they make it difficult to absorb things that don’t fit • Examples: – The restaurant – The classroom • Practices, not things – Shifting frames—the Cousin Joe example – Shifting frames—the club meeting 21

The significance of frames • “gay marriage” or “same-sex marriage” • “looting” or “finding” • “the rich” or “job creators” • “quiz” or “assessment” • “date” or “hook-up” 22

Coping with differences • Using the one you are in is easier than trying to translate concepts • Translation, if it requires completely identical meanings, is frequently not possible • The system you are in will shape your perceptions, however • Human beings construct the systems of meaning which shape our perceptions • You are ALWAYS in a system of meaning, but you are not trapped in any particular system of meaning 23

Summary • Language is a window into culture (Boas) • Language is a cultural map (Conklin, Frake…) • Language is a guide to social reality (Sapir/Whorf) – Linguistic relativity: grammar influences thought • A well-accepted idea – Linguistic determinism: grammar determines world view • Still controversial • Language is a framing device (Lakoff) – Helps us to organize and frame our experience of the world – And to express our experience of the world 24