Food Deserts in Minneapolis and St Paul Minnesota

Food Deserts in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota: Refining Healthy Food Access through Demographic Analysis and Spatial Weighting of Food Store Locations Thomas Whitfield Capstone Project Proposal 14 December 2016

What is My Interest? • Challenges with food deserts in urban areas can go unnoticed • My move to Minneapolis in 2002 • I did not own a car • Decisions about housing had to be made with this in mind • Family assistance allowed for me to get reliable transportation prior to the move • What about others who are not as fortunate? Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 2

Contents • Food Environment • Food Security • Food Deserts • Importance of healthy food access • Examples of how food environments have been identified • Objectives • Methods • Summary of Project Processes and Expected Outcomes • Timeline • References Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 3

Food Security • 12. 7% of households considered to be food insecure at some point during the year in 2015 • 5. 0% of households deemed very insecure 12. 7% 5. 0% Coleman-Jensen, Rabbitt, Gregory, & Singh, 2016 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 4

Food Desert Definitions • USDA: a region of higher concentrations of low income households that have poor access to healthy and affordable food options (2009) • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: “areas that lack access to affordable fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lowfat milk, and other foods that make up the full range of a healthy diet” (2012) • Food Empowerment Project: affordable access to healthy foods is very limited or nonexistent due to few to no options within a reasonable travel distance (2016) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 5

Food Desert Definition – USDA 1. Low Income 2. Low Access (10 miles) USDA, 2016 a Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 6

Importance of Healthy Food Access • Broader adverse health effects (USDA, 2009) • Increased weight-related diseases • Obesogenic environment (Chen & Kwan, 2015) • Sugar as part of regular diets (Drewnowski & Rehm, 2014) • Continued food choices offering poor nutritional value • Economics of discretionary foods • Majority still purchased at supermarkets (An & Maurer, 2016) • Higher resistance to inflation (Michimi & Wimberly, 2010) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 7

Factors Affecting Food Deserts • Availability adequacy of the supply of healthy food • Accessibility location and ease of getting to locations • Affordability food prices and perceptions of value • Acceptability attitudes about local food environment • Accommodation taking consumers’ habits and needs into account Caspi, Sorensen, Subramanian, & Kawachi, 2012 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 8

Availability • Rural areas • Smaller cities do not offer many food choices • Economically unviable for larger grocery stores that are serviced by few residents (Smith & Morton, 2009) • Urban areas • London, Ontario, as an urban case study (Larsen & Gilliland, 2008; 2009) • Increased resources but suburbanization displaces large food stores • Better transportation infrastructure but access to that is limited • Inconsistent or no vehicle access • Times and routes of public transit Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 9

Supermarket Locations in London, Ontario Larsen & Gilliland, 2008 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 10

How Low Access Is Defined • Distance to shopping • • • Economic accessibility Euclidean Manhattan Network Travel time • Home as a basis vs. other locations • • • Income Poverty rate Education levels Vehicle availability Neighborhood dynamics • Work • School • Other regular trips Leete, Bania, and Sparks-Ibanga, 2012; Shannon, 2016; USDA, 2009; Zenk et al. , 2005 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 11

Supermarket Access in London, Ontario Larsen & Gilliland, 2008 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 12

Accessibility Issues and Limitations • Inconsistent definitions of food stores (Larson, Story, & Nelson, 2009) • Store choices by researchers reflect ease of calculations (Leete, Bania, & Sparks-Ibanga, 2012) • Cultural shopping habits • Difficult to define (Widener, Farber, Neutens, & Horner, 2013) • One-stop solutions might not change established shopping habits (Shannon, 2016) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 13

Changing Perceptions • Combating discretionary foods through legislation • Soda/sugary beverage tax in Philadelphia (Aubrey, 2016) • Fast food restaurant moratorium in South Los Angeles (Sturm & Hattori, 2015) • Subsidize healthy foods (Michimi & Wimberly, 2010) • Nutrition education and community outreach (An & Maurer, 2016; Caspi, Sorensen, Subramanian, & Kawachi, 2012) • Let’s Move! initiative (Barnes, 2010) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 14

Summary – Food Insecurity • Despite improvements, food insecurity is still a major problem • Suburbanization of food stores leaves those in urban areas with fewer options • Access to stores is largely dependent on affordable transportation • Discretionary foods are more affordable to consumers and more profitable for stores • Broader health concerns stemming from nutritionally poor food choices Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 15

Limitations of Past Studies • Euclidean distance does not effectively measure access • Manhattan block distance (Zenk et al. , 2005) • Network distance • Travel to and from stores is only done along networks • Limitations using two-dimensional methods for measuring phenomena constrained to networks (Xie & Yan, 2008) • Shown to be more effective in similar research areas than standard density analysis (Yamada & Till, 2004) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 16

Traffic Accident Analysis Borruso, 2008 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 17

Traffic Accident Analysis Xie & Yan, 2008 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 18

Objectives of This Study • Examine the food environment of Minneapolis and St. Paul • Compare the food environment to certain socioeconomic variables indicative of limited resources to determine food desert areas • Compare the food deserts derived from this study to those used by the USDA Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 19

Study Area: Minneapolis and St. Paul • 2015 Population Estimates Region Population Households 7 -County Metro 3, 005, 419 1, 176, 655 Minneapolis 412, 517 176, 878 St. Paul 300, 353 115, 164 Minneapolis St. Paul Minnesota State Demographic Center, n. d. Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 20

Low Access to Grocery Stores (2010) • Hennepin County • 341, 806 • 29. 7% • Ramsey County • 124, 480 • 24. 5% USDA, 2016 b Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 21

Food Deserts – USDA, 2016 a Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 22

Perceived Barriers to Food Access • Determinants of food consumption in rural Minnesota and Iowa (Smith & Morton, 2009) • • Elevated food prices Poor food quality and variety Limited alternative procurement choices Welcoming attitude for food assistance programs or increased access • Detailed study in Minneapolis (Shannon, 2016) • Economic and access concerns • Limited hours and proximity of alternative procurement choices Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 23

Factors Behind Shopping Practices Shannon, 2016 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 24

Trips Distances to Minneapolis Food Stores Shannon, 2016 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 25

Methods – Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 26

Methods – Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access Dataset Description Format Housing Cost Burden Renter- and owner-occupied Polygon households in which greater geodatabase at than 30% of income is spent blockgroup level on housing Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal Source 2014 ACS, Minnesota Geospatial Commons 27

Methods – Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access Dataset Description Format Housing Cost Burden Renter- and owner-occupied Polygon households in which greater geodatabase at than 30% of income is spent blockgroup level on housing Low Wage Job Density Where low wage jobs exist and where employees of those jobs live Source 2014 ACS, Minnesota Geospatial Commons Smoothed surface Metro derived from census Council, block level data Minnesota Geospatial Commons Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 28

Methods - Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access • Food store data – accurate representation of food stores • Preliminary study – Google Earth • Capstone project – Reference. USA database (Info. Group, 2016) Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 29

Methods - Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access • Food store data – accurate representation of food stores • Preliminary study – Google Earth • Capstone project – Reference. USA database • Road and transit network information Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 30

Methods - Data • Socioeconomic data – representative of low income and low access • Food store data – accurate representation of food stores • Preliminary study – Google Earth • Capstone project – Reference. USA database • Road and transit network information • Existing USDA food desert designations for comparison Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 31

Methods – Analysis • Socioeconomic data • Create density surfaces using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) • Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function analysis Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 32

Methods – Analysis • Socioeconomic data • Create density surfaces using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) • Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function analysis • Food store data • Geolocate food stores using address information Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 33

Methods – Analysis • Socioeconomic data • Create density surfaces using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) • Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function analysis • Food store data • Geolocate food stores using address information • Rank food stores based on the availability of healthy foods Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal Store Type Rank Score Supermarket 6 Healthy 5 Grocery 4 Small Store 2 Convenience/Other 1 34

Methods – Analysis • Socioeconomic data • Create density surfaces using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) • Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function analysis • Food store data • • Geolocate food stores using address information Rank food stores based on the availability of healthy foods Derive density surfaces using KDE and network-based KDE Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function and network-based K-function analyses Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 35

Methods – Analysis • Socioeconomic data • Create density surfaces using Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) • Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function analysis • Food store data • • Geolocate food stores using address information Rank food stores based on the availability of healthy foods Derive density surfaces using KDE and network-based KDE Determine clustering independent of neighbors using K-function and network-based K-function analyses • Compare results to USDA food desert designations Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 36

Methods – Analysis • Arc. GIS Spatial Analyst • Kernel Density Estimation • Multi-Distance Spatial Cluster Analysis (K-function) • Spatial Autocorrelation (Moran’s I) • SANET – Spatial Analysis across Networks (Okabe, 2015) • • Network-constrained spatial analysis Free academic license Standalone product Toolbox for Arc. GIS Xie & Yan, 2008 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 37

Expected Outcomes • Series of maps showing the distributions of socioeconomic data and food store data • Areas of high Housing Cost Burden should correlate to low densities of healthy food stores • Areas of greater Low Wage Job Density should correlate to low densities of healthy food stores • Compare standard and network-based analyses • New definition of food desert regions based on these criteria and analyses • USDA designations will differ significantly from this definition Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 38

Timeline • January 2017 • Compile food store locations • • Reference. USA database Groundtruth stores to check database accuracy Geolocate stores by address Rank stores by type • Obtain socioeconomic data • Download census tract data from Minnesota Geospatial Commons • Derive density surfaces • Calculate K-functions Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 39

Timeline • February 2017 • Derive ranked food store densities • KDE • Network-based KDE • Calculate standard and network-based K-functions • Determine food desert locations from these data • High values of socioeconomic indicators • Low values of food stores • Create a geodatabase containing food desert designations Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 40

Timeline • March 2017 • Compare the newly derived data to existing USDA data • How much do socioeconomic indicators overlap? • How much do food desert delineations overlap? • Examine the effectiveness of using network-based KDE and K-function analyses versus standard versions • Compile suggestions for further research • Finalize Capstone presentation • April 2017: Present Capstone Project at the AAG Annual Meeting in Boston Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 41

References An, R. , & Maurer, G. (2016). Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and discretionary foods among US adults by purchase location. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, (August 2015), 1– 5. https: //doi. org/10. 1038/ejcn. 2016. 136 Aubrey, A. (2016). Taxing Sugar: 5 Things To Know About Philly’s Soda Tax  The Salt  NPR. Retrieved November 1, 2016, from http: //www. npr. org/sections/thesalt/2016/06/09/481390378/taxing-sugar-5 -things-to-know-about-phillys-proposed-soda-tax Barnes, M. (2010). Solving the problem of childhood obesity within a generation: White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity - Report to the President. Borruso, G. (2008). Network density estimation: A GIS approach for analysing point patterns in a network space. Transactions in GIS, 12(3), 377– 402. https: //doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1467 -9671. 2008. 01107. x Caspi, C. , Sorensen, G. , Subramanian, S. V. , & Kawachi, I. (2012). The local food environment and diet: A systematic review. Health & Place, 18(5), 1172– 1187. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. healthplace. 2012. 05. 006 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). A Look Inside Food Deserts. Retrieved December 3, 2016, from http: //www. cdc. gov/features/Food. Deserts/ Chen, X. , & Kwan, M. -P. (2015). Contextual Uncertainties, Human Mobility, and Perceived Food Environment: The Uncertain Geographic Context Problem in Food Access Research. American Journal of Public Health, 105(9), 1734– 1737. https: //doi. org/10. 2105/AJPH. 2015. 302792 Coleman-Jensen, A. , Rabbitt, M. P. , Gregory, C. A. , & Singh, A. (2016). Household Food Security in the United States in 2015. USDA Economic Research Report Number 215, September. Retrieved from http: //www. ers. usda. gov/webdocs/publications/err 215/err-215. pdf Drewnowski, A. , & Rehm, C. D. (2014). Consumption of added sugars among US children and adults by food purchase location and food source. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(3), 901– 7. https: //doi. org/10. 3945/ajcn. 114. 089458 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 42

References Food Empowerment Project. (2016). Food Deserts. Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http: //www. foodispower. org/food-deserts/ Info. Group. (2016). Reference. USA Home. Retrieved November 14, 2016, from http: //resource. referenceusa. com/ Larsen, K. , & Gilliland, J. (2008). Mapping the evolution of “food deserts” in a Canadian city: supermarket accessibility in London, Ontario, 1961 -2005. International Journal of Health Geographics, 7(1), 1– 16. https: //doi. org/10. 1186/1476 -072 X-7 -16 Larsen, K. , & Gilliland, J. (2009). A farmers’ market in a food desert: Evaluating impacts on the price and availability of healthy food. Health & Place, 15(4), 1158 – 1162. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. healthplace. 2009. 06. 007 Larson, N. I. , Story, M. T. , & Nelson, M. C. (2009). Neighborhood Environments: Disparities in Access to Healthy Foods in the U. S. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(1), 74– 81. e 10. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. amepre. 2008. 09. 025 Leete, L. , Bania, N. , & Sparks-Ibanga, A. (2012). Congruence and Coverage: Alternative Approaches to Identifying Urban Food Deserts and Food Hinterlands. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 32(2), 204– 218. https: //doi. org/10. 1177/0739456 X 11427145 Michimi, A. , & Wimberly, M. C. (2010). Associations of supermarket accessibility with obesity and fruit and vegetable consumption in the conterminous United States. International Journal of Health Geographics, 9(49), 1– 14. https: //doi. org/10. 1186/1476 -072 X-9 -49 Minnesota State Demographic Center. (n. d. ). Our Estimates. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from http: //mn. gov/admin/demography/data-by-topic/population -data/our-estimates/ Okabe, A. (2015). Welcome to SANET. Retrieved November 7, 2016, from http: //sanet. csis. u-tokyo. ac. jp/ Shannon, J. (2016). Beyond the Supermarket Solution: Linking Food Deserts, Neighborhood Context, and Everyday Mobility. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 106(1), 186– 202. https: //doi. org/10. 1080/00045608. 2015. 1095059 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 43

References Smith, C. , & Morton, L. W. (2009). Rural Food Deserts: Low-income Perspectives on Food Access in Minnesota and Iowa. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 41(3), 176– 187. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. jneb. 2008. 06. 008 Sturm, R. , & Hattori, A. (2015). Diet and obesity in Los Angeles County 2007 -2012: Is there a measurable effect of the 2008 “Fast-Food Ban”? Social Science and Medicine, 133, 205– 211. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. socscimed. 2015. 03. 004 USDA. (2009). Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences. Retrieved November 17, 2016, from http: //www. ers. usda. gov/webdocs/publications/ap 036/12716_ap 036_1_. pdf USDA. (2016 a). Food Access Research Atlas. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from http: //www. ers. usda. gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas. aspx USDA. (2016 b). Food Environment Atlas. Retrieved December 3, 2016, from https: //www. ers. usda. gov/data-products/food-environment-atlas/ Widener, M. J. , Farber, S. , Neutens, T. , & Horner, M. W. (2013). Using urban commuting data to calculate a spatiotemporal accessibility measure for food environment studies. Health & Place, 21, 1– 9. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. healthplace. 2013. 01. 004 Xie, Z. , & Yan, J. (2008). Kernel Density Estimation of traffic accidents in a network space. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 32, 396– 406. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. compenvurbsys. 2008. 05. 001 Yamada, I. , & Thill, J. -C. (2004). Comparison of planar and network K-functions in traffic accident analysis. Journal of Transport Geography, 12, 149– 158. https: //doi. org/10. 1016/j. jtrangeo. 2003. 10. 006 Zenk, S. N. , Schulz, A. J. , Israel, B. A. , James, S. A. , Bao, S. , & Wilson, M. L. (2005). Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health, 95(4), 660– 7. https: //doi. org/10. 2105/AJPH. 2004. 042150 Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 44

Any Questions? http: //www. wrongingrights. com/2009/02 Use permission via Creative Commons license. Thomas Whitfield – Capstone Project Proposal 45