Chap 8 wilderness Ecology and Ethics Ayo Ayo

Chap. 8 荒野、生態學與倫理學 wilderness, Ecology and Ethics 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系 Ayo NUTN website: http: //myweb. nutn. edu. tw/~hycheng/

課程大綱 u. Part I 基本概念 u. Part II 環境倫理學與應用倫理學 u. Part III 環境倫理學的理論 n n n 7 生命中心倫理 (Biocentric ethics) 8 荒野 (wilderness)、生態學與倫理學 9 土地倫理(The Land Ethic) 10 深層生態學(Deep Eco logy) 11 社會生態學 與 生態女性主義 (Ecofeminism) 12 可持續力(sustainability) Ayo NUTN website 生態中心倫理 Ecocentric ethics 2

Chap. 8 荒野、生態學與倫理學 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Wilderness (荒野) The contemporary debate From ecology to philosophy 生態學發展史 Ecocentric ethics (生態中心倫理) Comments Ayo NUTN website 3

Holmes Rolston u. Wilderness and inhabited region(荒地與 人居地區), 只是對應 nature and culture ( 自然與文化). u. Although humans are part of the natural world, the extent and rate of change due to human activities are significantly different from the extent and rate of natural change. Ayo NUTN website 6

Callicott and Nelson u J. Baird Callicott and Michael Nelson, n n The wilderness idea is too important to be abandoned. We must look to a reformed idea of wilderness that continue to guide environmental policy. u Two alternatives to the received view 1. We might focus on the nonhuman values associated with wild areas, particularly their value as habitat for other, often rare and endangered life-forms. 2. Wilderness areas are providing opportunities for humans to live within a natural, sustainable, and symbiotic relationship with wild nature. Ayo NUTN website 7

3) From ecology to philosophy u. Wilderness areas 的價值，顯現「生態學理」 對「環境倫理學」的重要性。 n n n 生態科學，is little more than one hundred years old. The first use of the term ecology is the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in the 1860 s. Eco + Logy = rules of the household 生態學發展史 Ayo NUTN website 8

一、「生態學」的定位(起源) 1866 -1891 Haeckel, Ernst: 第一個使用 ecology (1866)。 u eco-logy n (the study of household) 字源取自 eco-nomics (household + management) u the economy of nautre (自然的經濟)。 n n n Ecology as a part of physiology (生理學)。 total relationships of the animal both to its inorganic and its organic environment. complex interrelations referred to by Darwin as the conditions for the struggle for existence. Ayo NUTN website 11

一、「生態學」的定位( by 1910 s) u 1893 J. S. Burdon-Sanderson: President, British Ass. for Advancement of Science. n 將 Ecology 成為「生物學」中三大部之一。 ecology, physiology and morphology n 生態學 => philosophy of living nature. u 1900 s Clements & Cowles → plant ecology n 生態學 = 生理學 u 1910 s Adam (1917) & Elton (1927) n ecologists n → animal 生態學= new natural history (Adam, 1917) = scientific natural history (Elton, 1927) Ayo NUTN website 12

一、「生態學」的定位( by 1950 s) u 1949 Allee et al. Principles of animal ecology n n 生態學缺乏共同且獨立其他領域的知識 n 1. 由於內在的多元性 → 廣泛 distortion of 內容 n 2. 缺乏 historical studies Kuhn (1970) a developing scientific discipline ==> fusion of several separate trunks lacking a common initial rootstock. Ayo NUTN website 13

第一階段 (1800年初期) 植物地理學 u W. Koppen: Koppen's climate types. u A. Kerner (1831 -1898) / 在 Hungary (匈牙利) 政府支持下，描述 eastern Hungary and Transylvania 地的植被。著書: 「Plant life of the Danube Basin」 -- 不同海拔高度的植物, 作實驗性的移植。 Ayo NUTN website 23

第二階段 (1850年- 1899年) 植物地理學 u J. Warming n n n 提出 生活型 (life forms) 的名詞。 著書: 「Plantesamfund」 (第一本植物生態學的書) 將植物形態, 生理, 分類, 和生物地理, 合成一体。 u. A. Schimper n (1856 -1901)：於熱帶地區研究。 著書: 「Plant geography on a physiological basis u. J. Paczoski n (1841 -1924)：研究巴西的熱帶植被。 (1864 -1941)：植物如何影響環境 shade tolerance, competition, Succession, fire Ayo NUTN website 24

第三階段 (1900年代初期) 植物地理學 Ａ. 植物群落的研究 (美國) u H. C. Cowles: 研究植物 succession 的先驅 n (1899) The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of lake Michigan. u F. E. Clements: 理論學家 n n (1898) Pound) (1916) (1929) (1939) Ayo NUTN website The phytogeography of Nebraska. (with R. monograph on plant succession. Plant ecology. (with J. E. Weaver) Bio-ecology. (with V. E. Shelford) ┤ 26

第三階段 (1900年代初期) 植物地理學 Ｂ. 淡水水域 (歐州)： u F. A. Forel (1892) limnology/物理環境 u A. Thienemann (1931) 淡水生物學家/ nutrient cycles/producer, consumer/ u V. V. Stanchinsky (1931) On the importance of biomass in the dynamic equilibrium of the biocoenose. →community energetics u G. F. Gause (1934) The struggle for existence. →predator-prey (實驗)/ 種間競爭 Ayo NUTN website 27

第三階段 (1900年代初期) 植物地理學 Ｂ. 淡水水域 (美國)： u S. A. Forbes (1887): The lake as a microcosm. -- 湖泊中生命的互動/ food chains/ 天擇 (U. Illinois) u E. Transeau (1926): The accumulation of energy in plants. --玉米生產學者, 光合作用/ primary production/ energy budgets. u E. A. Birge and C. Juday/ Wisconsin Nat. History Survey u C. Juday (1940): 「The annual energy budget of an inland lake」 u R. A. Lindeman (1942): 激發二次大戰後的生態体系 之研究。 「The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology」 Ayo NUTN website 28

第四階段 (1950年以後) 植物地理學 美國: u G. E. Hutchinson (1957) 於研討會的總結 「族群研究: 動物生態和demography」 u. H. T. Odum & E. P. Odum (1953) : 「Fundamentals of Ecology」 u. J. T. Curtis (1959) The vegetation of Wisconsin. u. F. H. Bormannn and G. E. Likens (1967): Nutrient cycling. Ayo NUTN website 29

第四階段 (1950年以後) 植物地理學 歐州: u J. Ovington (1962) u R. E. Rodin and N. I. Bazilevic (1967) u J. L. Harper (1977) The population biology of plants. → a new area of plant demography. Ayo NUTN website 30

第四階段 (1950年以後) 世界: u. The International Biological Program (1964 -1974): The biological basis of productivity and human welfare. n energy flow and nutrient cycling in biomes. u The Society for Conservation Biology (1985) 成立發行Conservation Biology (1987 - ) Ayo NUTN website 31

自然歷史學 (Natural History) (一) 早期 u 17 th and 18 th 世紀 ==> 自然現象的描述 u. J. Harris (1700 s) : Natural history is a description of any of the natural products of the Earth, water or air, such as beasts, birds, fishes, metals, minerals, fossils, together with such phenomena as at any time appear in the material world. Ayo NUTN website 32

自然歷史學 (Natural History) ulate 18 th 世紀: quality vs. quantification n process vs. mechanism n concreteness vs. deductive abstract analysis n historical vs. ahistorical explanation. u 20 th 世紀: u W. F. Ganong (1904) → for a new method of experimental study and logical proof. u Natural history → 演化生物學 / 生物地理學 / 生態學 n Ayo NUTN website 33

自然歷史學 (Natural History) (二) 理論 理論基礎: u 1798 Malthus, Thomas: Essay on the principle of population. u 1859 Darwin, Charles: On the Origin of Species. u 18 XX G. Mendel: 族群遺傳的基本理論 Ayo NUTN website 34

自然歷史學 (Natural History) 理論完成: u 1. ─→ Population Genetics n n Sewell Wright (1931) R. A. Fisher (1930) J. Haldane (1932, 1954) u 2. ─→ Malthus 的 concept n n P. F. Verhulst (1838) 以數學表示 A. Lotka and V. Volterra (1926) Ayo NUTN website 35

自然歷史學 (Natural History) 實驗: n G. F. Gause (1934) / protozoans n T. Park (1954) / flour beetles u→ population biology (族群生物學) u→ evolutionary ecology (演化生態學) u→ theoretical mathematical ecology ( 理論數理生態學) Ayo NUTN website 36

自然歷史學 (Natural History) (三) 動物的研究 (Animal studies) ( 歐州): u. K. Mobius (1877) An oyster bank is a biocenose. u. R. Hesse (1924) Ecological Animal Geography(生態動物地理學). 1939 譯成英文 u. C. Elton (1927) Animal Ecology(動物生態學). / 第一本動物生態學的書→動物的經濟學和社 會學的研究 Ayo NUTN website 37

自然歷史學 (Natural History) (三) 動物的研究 (美國): u C. Adams (1913) A guide to the study of animals. u V. Shelford (1913) Animal communities in North America. (三) 動物的研究 (當代): u W. C. Allee, A. E. Emerson, T. Park, O. Park and K. P. u Schmidt (1949): 「Principles of animal ecology」. u Modern ecology: trophic structure, energy budgets, population dynamics, natural selection (evolution) Ayo NUTN website 38

(四) 動物行為 (Animal behavior) 早期 u 1. G. J. Romanes (1848 -1894) →比較的方法, 以動物類比人類行為 u 2. C. L. Morgan (1852 -1936) → 觀察和直接實驗 Ayo NUTN website 39

(四) 動物行為 (學派建立) u 3. 於 1900 s 早期, 動物行為學有四支 n n (1) 行為機制: perceptual and physiological (2) 功能和演化: (3) Konrad Lorenz: 基因 programmed 行為 (4) Niko Tinbergen: causation, development, evolution, function u. K. V. Frish: bee communities and behavior u二次大戰後 → 行為生態學 u → 社會生物學 (1975) E. O. Wilson Ayo NUTN website 40

(五) 生理生態學 (Physiological ecology) u 1. J. Leibig (1840): limiting factor / limited supplies of nutrients in growth and development of plants. u 2. F. F. Blackman (1905): factors interaction / light, CO 2, 溫度, assimilation rate u 3. V. E. Shelford (1913): Animal communities in Temperate America. / Law of tolerance. u 4. L. J. Henderson (1913): The fitness of the environment. / Chemical ecology. Ayo NUTN website 41

動物生態 vs. 植物生態 (一) 於英國: 1920年代 A. E. Tansley (植物) C. Elton (動物) → 英國生態學會 / J. Ecology 但後來，C. Elton 另成立 J. Animal Ecology Ayo NUTN website 42

動物生態 vs. 植物生態 2. 1940 s. 企圖聯合 u. V. E. Shelford (動物)和F. E. Clements ( 植物) → 「Bio-Ecology」 (1939) u但 Clements 仍認為: Plants determined the presence of animals and never vice versa. Ayo NUTN website 44

動物生態 vs. 植物生態 u 3. E. P. Odum (1964) → new ecology n n n (1) ecoosystem theory of Tansley (1935) (2) energetic 研究/ Transeau (1926) and Juday (1940) (3) trophic-dynamic theory of Lindeman (1942) 植物和動物 /energy flow/nutrient cycling/food chains ┤ Ayo NUTN website 45

三、應用生態學 1. 1930 s-60 s u H. Stoddard (1932): The bobwhite quail. 使用「火」, 控制植物的演進(succession) u A. Leopold (1933): Game management. 生態原則/ 經營 u J. Kittredge (1948): Forest influence. u H. L. Lutz and R. F. Chandler (1954): Forest soils. u Rachel Carson (1962): Silent Spring. Ayo NUTN website 46

三、應用生態學 2. 1980 su. Conservation Biology Soule (1986) → the science of scarcity and diversity. u. Landscape Ecology Forman and Godron (1986) → how a heterogenous combination of ecosystems is structured, functions, and changes. u. Restoration Ecology Jordal, et al. (1987) → experimental research to reproduction of ecosystems on highly disturbed lands. Ayo NUTN website 47

四、大眾覺醒 (Public awakens) 3. 人和環境的研究，追溯至 1800年代。 u. G. P. Marsh (1864): Man and Nature. u. E. Haeckel (1900): The Riddle of the universe. (1905): The wonders of Life. /back-to-the-land movement /有機農業/土壤和森林保育 u. J. Ritchie (1920): The influence of man on animal life in Scotland. Ayo NUTN website 49

四、大眾覺醒 (Public awakens) u P. B. Sears (1935): Deserts on the march. u W. Vogt (1948): Road to survival. u F. Osburn (1948): Our plundered (掠奪的) planet. u W. L. Thomas (1956): Man's role in changing the face of the Earth. Proceedings of symposium. u Rachel Carson (1962): Silent Spring. u P. R. Ehrlich (1968): The population Bomb. u G. Hardin (1968): The tragedy of the commons. u I. L. Mc. Harg (1969): Design with Nature. Ayo NUTN website 50

四、大眾覺醒 (Public awakens) u P. Shepard and D. Mc. Kinley (1969): The subversive Science (顛覆性科學). u E. Callenbach (1970): Ecotopia. (生態烏托邦) u W. W. Berhens III (1972): The limits to growth. (成長的極限) u IUCN (1980): World Conservation Strategy. u Council on Environmental Quality (1980): Global 2000 Ayo NUTN website 51

IBOY 2001 -2002 網路資源： · IBOY的網址： http: //www. nrel. colostate. edu/IBOY · DIVERSITAS 的網址： http: //www. icsu. org/DIVERSITAS · Species 2000 的網址： http: //www. sp 2000. org · 最近滅絕物種委員會的網址： http: //creo. amnh. org · 樹木生活計畫 的網： http: //phylogeny. arizona. edu/tree · 兩生類網站 的網址： http: //elib. cs. berkeley. edu/aw Ayo NUTN website 53

五、環保重要里程碑 (1970 s-90 s) u 1970 國家環境政策(NEPA) 和清淨空氣法案立法。 u 1970 第一次「地球日」 u 1970 UNESCO 的 Man and the Biosphere Program. u 1980 IUCN 發行 World Conservation Strategy. u 1983 核子戰爭的長期全球生物影響研討會 /Washington, D. C. 。 u 1992 聯合國的環境與發展的國際大會於巴西舉行。 Ayo NUTN website 56

六、現代生態學 u 1. 生物: Bird Ecology, Lizard Ecology, Plant Ecology, Fish Ecology, . . u 2. 演化: Population Genetics, Evolutionary Ecology u 3. 理論: Theoretical Ecology, System Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology, Physiological Ecology, Behavioral Ecology, . . . u 4. 環境: Environmental Conservation, Conservation Biology, Landscape Ecology, Geographical Ecology u 5. 社會: Social Ecology, Human Ecology, Ecological Impact Assessment, Industrial Ecology, Business ecology, …… Ayo NUTN website 57

大自然的生態體系模型 u 生態體系= 維生體系 1. 有機體模型 (organic model) 2. 社區模型 (community model) 3. 能量模型 (energy model) Ayo NUTN website 59

6) comments u. Ecocentric approaches to environmental ethics develop from the conviction that ecology must play a primary role in our understanding and valuing of nature. u. However, ecocentric philosophies are environmental approaches that are not yet fully formed. We need to pay particular attention to what specific ecological facts are being used in these philosophies and to how well that use is explained and justified. Ayo NUTN website 60

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