STUDY UNIT 6 TRAINING DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION Training DEFINITION

STUDY UNIT 6: TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION Training DEFINITION (Goldstein & Ford, 2002): Training is the systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes, which result in improved performance at work • Organisations choose employees based on the belief that they will be successful in their jobs. • Employees must enhance capabilities to keep performing. • Most employees are provided with the time to grow within their “new capacities”.

… INTRODUCTION • Training → improve fit between job demands & human attributes. • Training → enhanced job performance SA Government established legal framework for T&D: – The Skills Development Act – The Skills Development Levies Act – The South African Qualifications Authority Act – The Employment Equity Act • New structures & funding policies to: – increase investment in skills development – upliftment of previously disadvantaged groups – improve the quality and relevance of education and training to the SA economy – planned approach to developing skills: driven by 25 SETAs

… INTRODUCTION SA National Skills Development Strategy: • Address labour market weaknesses • Driven by SETAs • Focused on: – Developing a culture of high-quality life-long learning – Fostering skills development in formal economy – Stimulating skills development in small business sector – Promoting skills development, employability & sustainable likelihoods – Assisting new candidates to enter employment (national leadership initiative)

OUTCOMES-BASED TRAINING National Qualifications Framework (NQF): • Outcomes-based and assessment-led strategy to transform education & training in SA. • SA Qualifications Authority (SAQA): – Detailed criteria which any learner should meet: formulated as national unit standards which include a description of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which a qualified learner should be able to demonstrate. – Institutions should ensure that their training programmes teach NB skills, knowledge, attitudes & values described in these standards.

. . . OUTCOMES-BASED TRAINING Outcomes-based training: • Learners are assessed against nationally approved standards. • Standards are guidelines for learners (outcomes) & training provider (programmes & materials) • Applied competence entails applying the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in three (3) ways: – foundational competence – demonstrated knowledge and understanding of what one is doing and why – practical competence – demonstrated ability to consider a range of possibilities and applying one’s skill in practice – reflexive competence – demonstrated ability to connect one’s understanding with one’s performance through self-assessment activities

. . . OUTCOMES-BASED TRAINING. . . Outcomes-based training: • Focuses on what the learners need to achieve at the end of the training process. • 7 critical outcomes: – Problem-solving skills – Team member skills – Self-responsibility skills – Research skills – Communication skills – Technological & environmental literact – Ability to understand the world as a set of related systems

. . . OUTCOMES-BASED TRAINING. . . Outcomes-based training: • 5 developmental outcomes: – Learning skills – Responsible citizenship – Cultural & aesthetic understanding – Employment-seeking skills – Entrepreneurship

LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE LEARNING = The process of encoding, retaining & using information. • Skill acquisition can be segmented into three phases (Anderson, 1985): – – – Declarative knowledge phase: knowledge about facts and things; involves memorising and reasoning processes that allow the individual to attain a basic understanding of the task. Only when the person has acquired an adequate understanding of the task, can he/she proceed to the second phase: Knowledge compilation phase: Integration of the sequences of cognitive and motor processes required to perform the task. Performance becomes faster and more accurate. Procedural knowledge : Refers to knowledge about how to perform various cognitive activities. (Ackerman’s classes of abilities) Skills acquisition phase: Final phase. Is reached when the individual can essentially perform the task automatically and efficiently.

… LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE • Ackerman’s three classes of abilities: 1. General intellectual ability: – Most important factor in acquiring declarative knowledge. – New task: demands on attention are high – As he/she understands the task demands and develops a performance strategy, the attentional demands decrease & the importance of intellectual ability for task performance is lessened. 2. Perceptual speed abilities: – As the individual moves to the procedural phase, perceptual speed abilities become important. – Develops basic understanding of how to perform the task, but seeks a more efficient method for accomplishing the task with a minimum of attention. – Perceptual abilities is needed for the effective processing of information.

… LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE • . . . Ackerman’s three classes of abilities: 3. Psychomotor ability: – As the individual moves to the final phase of skill acquisition, his/her performance is limited by his/her level of psychomotor ability. – Thus: individual differences provide the final decisive factor. – Abilities such as co-ordination determine the final level of task performance in the procedural knowledge phase.

… LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE Why do some learn quick but not reach high level of task proficiency OR some learn slow but do acquire high level of task proficiency? ? • Relationship between learning & task performance = complex. • Learning to perform tasks depends on a complex set of factors influencing performance & the duration of performance.

… LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE Learning and the transfer thereof to the work situation: 1. Proceduralisation & Automaticity: • Proceduralisation = set of conditional action rules (if condition A is present, action B is needed) • Automaticity = state of rapid performance that requires little cognitive effort (& no monitoring required) 2. Mental models: • The way knowledge is organised • Experts’ models are qualitativeli better – more diagnostic cues for detecting meaningful patterns in learning • More complex knowledge systems, leading to faster solutions 3. Meta-cognition: • Knowledge of & control over one’s cognitions • Experts have greater understanding of task demands & their own capabilities

… LEARNING & TASK PERFORMANCE Importance of a task-specific individual attribute for learning • Trait-like” individual differences: – cognitive ability & personality – not specific to a certain task • “State-like” individual differences: – Task-specific – E. g. Self-efficacy (motivation to learn & belief in your capabilities)

STRATEGIC VALUE OF T & D • Training not for the sheer sake thereof. • Employees represent a competitive advantage for the organisation → higher performance. • Link between organisation’s competitive strategy & T&D practices. • Four (4) types of strategies: 1. Speed strategy 2. Innovation strategy 3. Quality-enhancement strategy 4. Cost-reduction strategy

… STRATEGIC VALUE OF T & D 1. Speed strategy: • • Reduced time for product and service(s) Training will focus on teamwork and streamlined production Thus time is reduced to meet customer’s need Quick product delivery 2. Innovation strategy: • Used to develop products or services that differ from that of the competition • Provide something new and different! • Training focuses on the development of new products, services, and technologies

… STRATEGIC VALUE OF T & D 3. Quality-enhancement strategy: • Provide a product or service of higher quality than offered by competitors • Training will focus on providing a high level of service quality with no defects 4. Cost-reduction strategy: • Gain a competitive advantage by being a low cost provider of services • No(t) investing in persons with higher skills • Since organisation wants to cut costs, employing employees with better skills will cost them more IN PRACTICE A COMBINATION OF THE ABOVEMENTIONED FOUR STRATEGIES ARE USED

ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS • Personnel training process has a rational design (Figure 7. 1, p. 179) • Design of training begins with analysis of training needs. • Also involves developing objectives, choosing methods & designing an evaluation. • Assessment of training needs is a 3 -step process: 1. Organisational analysis 2. Task analysis 3. Person analysis

… ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS 1. Organisational analysis: • Examination of components that determine whether the training program can produce behaviour that will transfer to the organisation. • Need info such as: Is training necessary? Is training the right approach? Are resources available? • Trainees are required to learn something (training environment) & use knowledge (in the job situation). • Training programs can fail because of organisational constraints: Example: trainees may learn a set of behaviours that are inconsistent with the way a manager prefers to have the job performed. • Org. analysis investigates the factors that influences the transfer of learning to the workplace. • The organisation’s mission, vision and strategic plan can also be investigated.

… ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS 2. Task analysis: • Purpose is to determine the training objectives that are related to the performance of particular activities or job operations. • Can use info from job analysis for task analysis. • Task analysis → activities of the job & job conditions. • Steps: 1. Development of task statements • Statements that specify tasks performed (what, when, why, how) 2. Development of task clusters • Statements divided into homogeneous clusters (more manageable) 3. Knowledge, skill & ability analysis • Specify human abilities needed for the job 4. Development of learning programs • Based on KSAs • Id behaviours needed to perform successfully

… ASSESSING TRAINING NEEDS 2. Person analysis: • Purpose is to answer two questions: – Who needs training? – What type of training do they need? • Performance appraisal results can be used

… METHODS OF TRAINING 1. On-site training a) On-the-job training – Trained at actual job location – Instructors = more established employees – Learn by imitation b) Job rotation – Rotate through a variety of jobs – Acquaint with many jobs & opportunity to learn by doing – Creates flexibility & marketability

… METHODS OF TRAINING. . . 1. On-site training: c) Apprentice training – New employee tutored by established employee for long period – Apprentice = assistant – Training is intense, lengthy & on one-to-one basis d) Learnerships – Cornerstone of National Skills Development Strategy – Allign training with labour market needs – Combines academic & practical

… METHODS OF TRAINING 2. Off-site training: a) Lectures b) Audio-visual material c) Conferences d) Programmed instruction e) Computer-assisted instruction f) Simulations g) Role play

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING • Assessment = Process in which evidence of performance is gathered & evaluated against criteria • In outcome-based learning learners are required to demonstrate knowledge, skills, values & attitude • 4 Kinds of assessment: a) Diagnostic b) Formative c) Summative d) Evaluative

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING a) Diagnostic Assessment – – – Prior to/at beginning of training Provides facilitator with planning info Use 2 strategies: • Formal = scheduled & structured (e. g. Pre-test) • Informal = questions to assess learners’ entry levels b) Formative Assessment – – – Conducted during instruction 2 ways: • Formal = scheduled & structured (e. g. test) • Informal = questions/observations Adapt methods to maximise learning Has a teaching, coaching & development function Broad picture of learners’ learning

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING c) Summative Assessment – – – At end of learning session Final measure of what was learnt May include projects/performance tasks in real-life after attending practicum d) Evaluative Assessment – – – Post-assessment activity Use learner feedback to evaluate effectiveness of overall assessment process Explains to learners & moderators how assessment results were achieved

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT ISSUES • Management development = Process by which individuals learn to perform effectively in managerial roles • NB is time & energy spent in planning, design & execution of development activities • Critical management skills: – Personal skills (self-awareness, stress management, creative problem-solving) – Interpersonal skills (supportive communication, gaining power & influence, motivating others, conflict management) • Underutilisation of managerial skills and practices → Derailment (manager who is expected to be successful fails and is fired, demoted etc. )

. . MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT ISSUES 3 Issues relevant to management development process: 1. The management of cultural diversity in the work place 2. The prevention and handling of sexual harassment in the work place 3. Mentorship in the work place

POST-TRAINING ENVIRONMENT • Effectiveness of training can be influenced by events that occur after trainee returns to work • Limitations in post-training environment can influence transfer of learning including: a) Distinguish between: • Generalisation = Extent to which trained skills & behaviours are exhibited at work • Maintenance = Length of time trained skills & behaviours are used at work b) Supervisory support c) Opportunity to apply what has been learnt d) Social support systems of org

POST-TRAINING ENVIRONMENT • Effectiveness of training can be influenced by events that occur after trainee returns to work • Limitations in post-training environment can influence transfer of learning including: a) Distinguish between: • Generalisation = Extent to which trained skills & behaviours are exhibited at work • Maintenance = Length of time trained skills & behaviours are used at work b) Supervisory support c) Opportunity to apply what has been learnt d) Social support systems of org e) Relapse-prevention training

EVALUATION CRITERIA Evaluation criteria for training programs (Kirkpatrick): 1. Reaction criteria: measure participants’ impressions and feelings about the training programme 2. Learning criteria: assess how much has been learned; example: Final exams 3. Behavioural criteria: refer to the actual changes in performance after training 4. Results criteria: related to the economic value of the training program to the company

… EVALUATION CRITERIA Four dimensions of evaluating training validity (Goldstein): 1. Training Validity: Did learners match the assessment criteria of the learning programme? 2. Transfer Validity: Did learners match the criteria for success when back at work? 3. Intra-organisational Validity: Is learning equally effective with different groups in same organisation? 4. Inter-organisational Validity: Is learning equally effective with different learners in other companies than the one that developed the training programme?

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