Geografi Teknologi dan Politik Ekonomi Mata Kuliah Geografi

Geografi Teknologi dan Politik. Ekonomi Mata Kuliah Geografi Ekonomi Dept. Geografi FMIPA UI

n io tion t a m nica ogy r fo u ol n I mm hn c Co Te Geographical Knowledge and Enlightenment Foto Udara Pemetaan awal dan ensiklopedia (Ptolemy, Colum bus , Ratzel, dll) Mental maps Hidup dari lingkungan Berburu dan bertani Lokal Perdagangan regional baru GIS/ GPS / GPRS/ what else ? Export/ import Berdagang / barter Berdagang / transaksi benda berharga (uang) Jaman imperialisme Regional Apalagi yang akan datang ? Tata dunia baru (metanasional) Globalisasi -------> Imperialisme gaya baru Trans Continent Enlightenment: as “related to theoeitical matters: to (objective) rational knowledge and to (subjective) facility in rational reflection about matters of human life” (Livingstone, David N, 1999) Global Spatial Dynamics: Global Regional National Local Site

Pace of innovation Long Wave Cycles of Innovation Water power Textiles Iron 1785 1 st Wave 60 years Electricity Petrochemicals Digital networks Chemicals Software Electronics Internal-combustion Aviation New Media engine Steam Rail Steel 2 nd Wave 1845 55 years 3 rd Wave 1900 50 years 4 th Wave 1950 40 years 5 th Wave 1990 30 years

Kumulatif Sumbangan Moda Transportasi terhadap Peluang Ekonomis Produksi Massal Peluang Ekonomis Revolusi Industrial Globalisasi Telekomunikasi Jalan darat Udara Kereta Api Kapal Penyeberangan Kuda Kapal Laut 1750 1775 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050

Jarak Metrik Jarak Sosial Jarak waktu Jakarta Surabaya Alat transportasi: kuda Jakarta Surabaya Alat transportasi: kereta api Jakarta Surabaya Alat transportasi: pesawat udara Jakarta Surabaya Internet

Urban Places (based on buildings) Urban electronic spaces (constructed ‘inside’ telematics network using computer software) Teritory Network Fixity Motion/flux Embedded Dis-embedded Visible Invisible Tangible Intangible Actual Virtual/abstract Euclidean social space Logical space

Old Characterisations New Characterisation Space of places Space of flows (Castells, 1989) Physical presence Telepresence (CEC, 1992) Physical Mediation Telemediation (Richardson, 1994) Geography Telegeography (Staple, 1992) Distance Speed and Time (Mulgan, 1991) Closure Openness and exposure (Virilio, 1987) Locality Globality (Knight and Gappert, 1989) “Modern space” Post-Modern ‘Hyperspace’ (Jameson, 1984) Data spaces (Murdock, 1993) Electronics spaces (Robbins & Hepworth, 1988) Cyberspace (Martin Dodge, Gibson, 1984) Netscape (Hemrick, 1992) Networld (Harasim, 1993)

Dari Navigable space conceptual space within ICTs (Information Communication Technology) rather technology itself (Martin Dodge, 1999) Pemanfaatan studi tentang lokasi dan tempat dengan memanfaatkan info spatial dijital Pengembangan kajian yang dibagi atas 2 tahapan: a. Makro: fokus pada perbedaan karakteristik lokasi dan tempat (konvensional b. Mikro: fokus pada pengaruh perubahan karakteristik lokasi dan tempat terhadap individu ataupun masyarakat

Oct. 2001 Sept. 2000

Place Space Nodes Space Computer or Cspace Place Nets Cyberplace Place/space: domain geografi dg metode konvensional; menterjemahkan place menjadi karakteristik space Cspace: abstraksi suatu space menjadi computer space Cyberspace: space-space yg baru muncul stlh dikonversi melalui cspace Cyberplace: pengaruh infrastruktur cyberspace terhadap infrastruktur tradisional di suatu tempat (place)

Information spaces Social spaces Infrastructure

Tempat (place) : suatu lokasi sebagai wujud dari integrasi masyarakat, budaya dan bentang alamnya ada satu hubungan yang sistematis antara individu dan komponen landscape (Lowenthal, 1989) Pemahaman landscape dapat dibagi dalam 4 perspektif paradigma: a. The Expert Paradigm applications design for use by managers and planners b. The Psychological Paradigm meaning in the perception of landscapes (value stimulation) c. The Cognitive Paradigm meaning in landscape in human terms (construct of human mind) d. The Experiential Paradigm meaning of human landscape interactions (human environment interaction)

Interface Attitudes Perception Cognition Spatial behavior Golledge, 1997 Learning Behavior with the system changes the interface Change in the system Environmental Structure

Apa itu Perubahan ? • Sebagai obyek t t’ Event/kejadian + proses Berubah ukurannya (bertambah besar/kecil – meningkat/menurun Berubah bentuk Berubah isi Berubah karena skala (pengamatan) • Sebagai kata benda • Perubahan kepemilikan • Perubahan nilai, fungsi, peran

How Asians and Westerners Think Differently and WHY (Richard E. Nisbett, 2003) Ecology Economy Social Structure Attention Metaphysics Epistemology Metaphysics Cognitive Process Epistemology Cognitive Process Westerners Orientation Asians Orientation

Konteks Geografi Ekonomi-Politik

Permasalahan Politik Ekonomi Internasional Internal Politik Ekonomi Internasional

The meaning of the ‘political’ • Politics: struggles for power to exercise: – control over others and self – satisfy interests – express or gain recognition for identities • Power: – force/coercion – manipulation (tricks) – consent (legitimate authority/persuasion)

Political perspectives • Statist: state is singular source of identities and interests, with people ‘serving’ the collective enterprise that represents the state – The political is the arena of authority in which absolute decisions are made and control is exercised => National-security politics => risk of authoritarianism and totalitarianism • Liberal: state only manages and adjudicates between private interests – The political is not about control or identity but about discussion/negotiation procedures to accommodate distinctive interests of individuals and groups => risk of unbalanced negotiating power privileging some over others • Political economy critique: the political is mostly functional for the economic => legitimation of capitalism and social order • Politics exist whenever power is exercised in struggles over collective goods and identities

Political constituents • Historical configurations of power give rise to hegemonies (mixes of coercion and consent) exercised by, and serving the interests of social groups or states (e. g. aristocracy, Bush junior) – This historical bias is built in specific places (geographical distribution of types of political regimes) => idea of ‘revolution’: break from this bias (e. g. independence and revolution in Cuba) • Knowledge/discourse providing the logic and language for practical reasoning – This intellectual bias is also geographically specific (language, type and access of media) => idea of exposing the interests served by words and reasoning (e. g. deconstructing discourse) • Networks of actors (persons, institutions, technologies, things) that connect, entrain, and shape all social activities (e. g. political parties, unions, marketing channels): power is the resource that these networks provide to actors.

Some concepts in political geography • • Location, Space, Place Distance, Distribution, Diffusion Scale, Hierarchies Territory, Territoriality Boundaries, Frontiers State, Nation Sphere of influence, Core and Periphery

Location – Absolute • longitude, latitude, altitude – Relative • with regard to physical features or to other political units – Location theory • seeks to account for the location of economic activities – ‘rational’ economic behavior – historical particularity of different phases of capitalist development – global context of these phases of development – structural interdependencies between commodity production , social reproduction, and urbanisation

Space – Absolute or objective space: distinct physical entity (location, area). – Relational or social space: sites in which social practices take place (space exists through social practices) => ‘social production of space’

Place – Portion of geographical space occupied by a person or a thing – Elements of a place: • Locale, the setting in which social relations are constituted (e. g. street corner, state territory) • Location, the geographical area encompassing the settings for social interaction in absolute terms and relative terms • Sense of place, the local “structure of feeling” (e. g. sense of ‘belonging’ to a region or a country => identity) (see Agnew, J. (1987) Place and Politics: the geographical mediation of state and society. Boston: Allen and Unwin)

Place and politics • Characteristics shaping political activity in particular places: 1) spatial division of labour effecting class and social structures, and community affiliations 2) communications technology and patterns of accessibility to it 3) characteristics of local and central states 4) expression of class, gender, ethnic divisions through local culture, work authority, and history 5) predominant local bases for collective identity formation (class, ethnic, gender divisions), and place-based identities oriented to the local, regional, or national level 6) microgeography of everyday life through which patterns of social interaction are spatially structured

Distance • Absolute or physical distance (e. g. km) and relative distance (e. g. telecommunications and air travel transform physical distance by reducing it in relative terms) • ‘Socio-cultural’ distance among and between different people (e. g. social classes; e. g. accessibility of air travel, visas; but also interpersonal relations and sense of ‘community’ and social proximity • Functional distance: intensity of exchanges – e. g. circulation of goods (material or cultural) between two places • Effects of distance: – Friction or inhibiting effect of distance (time and cost / distance) – Distance decay: attenuation of a pattern or process with distance => proximity and greater human interaction can result from: physical proximity or its technological reduction; socio-cultural homogeneity; functional complementarity

Distribution • Location of people, things, ideas, or events • Distribution of interactions and attributes can differentiate between ‘Functional’ or ‘Formal’ areas (or regions): – Functional areas constituted by interactions (e. g. commercial or social exchanges) – Formal areas constituted by homogeneity of attributes (e. g. corn belt), characteristics (e. g. administrative unit)

Diffusion • Transmission across space and over time of a phenomenon (changes in its distribution) - e. g. diffusion of industrial technology and processes, democracy, epidemics … • An analysis of diffusion is not only interested in its spatial manifestation over time (especially the barriers through which change is slowed down, or the pathways through which change is channeled or operated), but also in the social processes driving this change – e. g. diffusion of AIDS epidemics along transport/trucking lanes in Southern Africa, phenomenon of wage labour, prostitution, as well as cultural and political resistance and weak capacity for prevention by local authorities

t 3 t 2 t 1 Expansion Diffusion Relocation Diffusion Combination of Expansion and Relocation

Spatial analysis

Scale • Level of representation (e. g. resolution level in cartography) • Politics of scale, and political economy of scale: production of space at different scales (e. g. global organization of capital and location of energy sources, national justification of nuclear energy use, local experience of proximity to nuclear power stations). • Local, national, regional, global/international – ‘Globalization’, ‘Nationalism’ – Complex relations across scales – Everything is ‘local’

Territory and territoriality • General term used to describe a portion of space occupied by a person, group or political unit • Territoriality: practice by different social groups occupying or using a space and resulting in the creation of bounded social space => the field of power exercised over space by (dominant) institutions (e. g. ‘unsafe’ neighborhoods, gated communities) – Territoriality put in practice: • Popular acceptance of classifications of space (identity, exclusion, …) • Communication of a sense of place (boundary markers, . . . ) • Enforcing control over space (surveillance, policing, …) => concept of territorial sovereignty: claim of exclusive legitimate control over a given area (e. g. territorial basis of state sovereignty; or territorial jurisdiction of a court).

Triarko Nurlambang Universitas Indonesia

Indonesia among other countries in the World • • • Country competitiveness: 28/30 Macro economic in domestic economy 24/30 Govt policy toward competitiveness 27/30 Enterprise performing in innovative, profitable, and responsible manner 30/30 Basic technology, scientific, and human resources meet the needs of business 30/30 World Investment Report (2003) 138/140 Human Development Index 110/173 Country risk 150/185 PERC: highest corruption index 7/102 From various sources

Society • Hundreds of ethnic groups • Unbalanced geodemographic distribution (less densed pop. in eastern) • Dominated by muslim (concentrated in western and center) Scaterred Resources (tangibles and intangibles) Economy Idealism: United in Diversity based on Pacasila (? ) Environment • Biodiversity; second richest in the world (land + sea) • Heavy exploitation in western rather than eastern • Economic/business activities concentraed more in Western part • Western part has better infrastructure and business support • Western part is closer to international business center (Singapore-Malaysia and East Asia) • Big gap between urban and rural economy Confusing Laws • central vs local • by sector

Isu Geografi Ekonomi Politik Indonesia • Disparitas pembangunan dan kesejahteraan: Kawasan Barat vs Kawasan Timur, Kota vs Desa, Pesisir vs Pedalaman, daerah inti pertambangan vs non-pertambangan • Pemekaran Wilayah atau Aneksasi? • Kepentingan Pusat vs Daerah, sentralisasi vs desentralisasi (otonomi daerah) • Pulau besar vs pulau-pulau kecil

Konflik Contiguity bersifat vertikal Konflik Geografis Konflik Teritorial bersifat horizontal Konflik Gabungan vertikal + horizontal Satu otorita daerah memiliki wilayah pengelolaan yang tumpang tindih dengan otoritas daerah yang lebih tinggi. Contoh kasus Pemda Batam dan Otoritas Batam. , Pemda Tk 2 dan Tk 1 atau Perda Pariwisata dan UU Suaka Alam Satu otorita daerah yang konflik dengan otorita daerah lain yang setara. Contoh kasus konflik batas negara, konflik pengelolaan sumberdaya ikan laut antar Propinsi/ kabupaten Sebagai contoh adalah pembentukan atau pemekaran Daerah baru. Contoh lain (potensial) adalah penerapan konsep Megapolis di Jabodetabek

Garis batas pemekaran Daerah Garis batas awal Kabupaten A 1: n A ra ten eka a p bu pem a K lah te se Tipikal Konflik: • ) Konflik antara pusat dengan daerah (konflik vertikal) • Antara Prop A 1 dg prop A 2 (konflik horizontal Kabupaten A 2: setelah pemekaran Banyak keterkaitan fungsional pembangunan yang “terpotong” oleh akibat batas admnistrasi baru dan menimbulkan resiko masalah pengambilan keputusan sampai pelaksanaan di lapangan

Manfaat • Terjadi Peningkatan Kesejahteraan (sesuai Tujuan) • Timbul Peluang Kerja • Rentang Kendali mengecil Resiko • Konflik sosial-ekonomi (masalah lokalitas nilai) • disparitas sosialekonomi • Biaya tinggi dan tambah rentang birokrasi, khusus untuk aktifitas pembangunan yang lintas batas inefisiensi; daya saing melemah

Ø Basis Proyek vs sustainable development (jangka pendek vs jangka panjang) Ø Arus Kas vs Porto-folio Ø ada apa dengan angka ajaib ‘ 0’ dan ‘ 5’ ? Ø Positivisme vs Relativisme POSITIVISME RELATIVISME Rasional + Irrasional Informasi terbatas Informasi tidak terbatas (open source) Plural specifik Keatuan holistik (cenderung fokus pd monodisiplin) (harus multidisiplin) Global/orientasi ke-barat (western) Kearifan dan keunikan Lokal

Cognitive Space Affective Space Spatial Attributes Sense of Place Spatial Behavior Positive Approach Physical Landscape Cultural Landscape Spatial Arrangement Regional Planning Process Relative Approach

SPACE VALUE ? perencanaan wilayah Spatial Imagination Values Cognitive Space Affective Space Conative Spatial Behavior Cognitive Psychologi cal transforma tion Affective Conative Practices Spatial arrangement / Tata Ruang