Data and Computer Communications Transmission Media Transmission Media

Data and Computer Communications Transmission Media

Transmission Media Communication channels in the animal world include touch, sound, sight, and scent. Electric eels even use electric pulses. Ravens also are very expressive. By a combination voice, patterns of feather erection and body posture ravens communicate so clearly that an experienced observer can identify anger, affection, hunger, curiosity, playfulness, fright, boldness, and depression. —Mind of the Raven, Raven Bernd Heinrich

Overview Ø transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver Ø guided media – guided along a solid medium Ø unguided media – atmosphere, space, water Ø characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal l l guided media - medium is more important unguided media - bandwidth produced by the antenna is more important Ø key concerns are data rate and distance

Design Factors Determining Data Rate and Distance bandwidth • higher bandwidth gives higher data rate transmission impairments • impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance interference • overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal number of receivers • more receivers introduces more attenuation

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Transmission Characteristics of Guided Media Frequency Range Typical Attenuation Typical Delay Repeater Spacing Twisted pair (with loading) 0 to 3. 5 k. Hz 0. 2 d. B/km @ 1 k. Hz 50 µs/km 2 km Twisted pairs (multi-pair cables) 0 to 1 MHz 0. 7 d. B/km @ 1 k. Hz 5 µs/km 2 km Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 d. B/km @ 10 MHz 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km Optical fiber 186 to 370 THz 0. 2 to 0. 5 d. B/km 5 µs/km 40 km

Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Twisted pair is the least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium. Ø consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern Ø a wire pair acts as a single communication link Ø pairs are bundled together into a cable Ø most commonly used in the telephone network and for communications within buildings

Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics analog needs amplifiers every 5 km to 6 km susceptible to interference and noise digital limited: can use either analog or digital signals distance needs a repeater every 2 km to 3 km bandwidth (1 MHz) data rate (100 MHz)

Unshielded vs. Shielded Twisted Pair Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) • • ordinary telephone wire cheapest easiest to install suffers from external electromagnetic interference Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) • • has metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference provides better performance at higher data rates more expensive harder to handle (thick, heavy)

Twisted Pair Categories and Classes

Near End Crosstalk Ø coupling of signal from one pair of conductors to another Ø occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples back to the receiving pair (near transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair)

Signal Power Relationships

Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted pair. Ø consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor Ø is a versatile transmission medium used in a wide variety of applications Ø used for TV distribution, long distance telephone transmission and LANs

Coaxial Cable - Transmission Characteristics frequency characteristics superior to twisted pair performance limited by attenuation & noise analog signals • amplifiers needed every few kilometers closer if higher frequency • usable spectrum extends up to 500 MHz digital signals • repeater every 1 km closer for higher data rates

Optical Fiber Optical fiber is a thin flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray. Ø Ø various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers has a cylindrical shape with three sections – core, cladding, jacket widely used in long distance telecommunications performance, price and advantages have made it popular to use

Optical Fiber - Benefits Ø greater capacity l data rates of hundreds of Gbps Ø smaller size and lighter weight l l considerably thinner than coaxial or twisted pair cable reduces structural support requirements Ø lower attenuation Ø electromagnetic isolation l l not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise, or crosstalk high degree of security from eavesdropping Ø greater repeater spacing l lower cost and fewer sources of error

Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics Ø uses total internal reflection to transmit light l effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz (this covers portions of infrared & visible spectra) Ø light sources used: Light Emitting Diode (LED) • cheaper, operates over a greater temperature range, lasts longer Injection Laser Diode (ILD) • more efficient, has greater data rates Ø has a relationship among wavelength, type of transmission and achievable data rate

Optical Fiber Transmission Modes

Frequency Utilization for Fiber Applications WDM = wavelength division multiplexing

Attenuation in Guided Media

Wireless Transmission Frequencies 1 GHz to 40 GHz 30 MHz to 1 GHz • • referred to as microwave frequencies highly directional beams are possible suitable for point to point transmissions also used for satellite • suitable for omnidirectional applications • referred to as the radio range • infrared portion of the spectrum • useful to local point-to-point and multipoint applications within to confined areas 3 x 1011 2 x 1014

Antennas transmission antenna reception antenna radiated into surrounding environment fed to receiver converted to electromagnetic energy by antenna converted to radio frequency electrical energy radio frequency energy from transmitter electromagnetic energy impinging on antenna Ø electrical conductors used to radiate or collect electromagnetic energy Ø same antenna is often used for both purposes

Radiation Pattern Ø power radiated in all directions Ø does not perform equally well in all directions l as seen in a radiation pattern diagram Ø an isotropic antenna is a point in space that radiates power l l in all directions equally with a spherical radiation pattern

Parabolic Reflective Antenna

Antenna Gain Ø measure of the directionality of an antenna Ø power output in particular direction verses that produced by an isotropic antenna Ø measured in decibels (d. B) Ø results in loss in power in another direction Ø effective area relates to physical size and shape

Terrestrial Microwave most common type is a parabolic dish with an antenna focusing a narrow beam onto a receiving antenna located at substantial heights above ground to extend range and transmit over obstacles uses a series of microwave relay towers with point-to-point microwave links to achieve long distance transmission

Terrestrial Microwave Applications used for long haul telecommunications, short point-to-point links between buildings and cellular systems Ø used for both voice and TV transmission Ø fewer repeaters but requires line of sight transmission Ø 1 -40 GHz frequencies, with higher frequencies having higher data rates Ø main source of loss is attenuation caused mostly by distance, rainfall and interference Ø

Microwave Bandwidth and Data Rates

Satellite Microwave a communication satellite is in effect a microwave relay station Ø used to link two or more ground stations Ø receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and transmits on another frequency Ø l Ø frequency bands are called transponder channels requires geo-stationary orbit l l l rotation match occurs at a height of 35, 863 km at the equator need to be spaced at least 3° - 4° apart to avoid interfering with each other spacing limits the number of possible satellites

Satellite Point-to-Point Link

Satellite Broadcast Link

Satellite Microwave Applications Ø uses: private business networks • satellite providers can divide capacity into channels to lease to individual business users television distribution • programs are transmitted to the satellite then broadcast down to a number of stations which then distributes the programs to individual viewers • Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) transmits video signals directly to the home user global positioning • Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS)

Transmission Characteristics Ø the optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is 1 to 10 GHz • lower has significant noise from natural sources • higher is attenuated by atmospheric absorption and precipitation Ø satellites use a frequency bandwidth range of 5. 925 to 6. 425 GHz from earth to satellite (uplink) and a range of 3. 7 to 4. 2 GHz from satellite to earth (downlink) • this is referred to as the 4/6 -GHz band • because of saturation the 12/14 -GHz band has been developed (uplink: 14 - 14. 5 GHz; downlink: 11. 7 - 12. 2 GH

Broadcast Radio Ø radio is the term used to encompass frequencies in the range of 3 k. Hz to 300 GHz Ø broadcast radio (30 MHz - 1 GHz) covers • FM radio • UHF and VHF television • data networking applications Ø omnidirectional Ø limited to line of sight Ø suffers from multipath interference l reflections from land, water, man-made objects

Infrared Ø achieved using transceivers that modulate noncoherent infrared light Ø transceivers must be within line of sight of each other directly or via reflection Ø does not penetrate walls Ø no licenses required Ø no frequency allocation issues Ø typical uses: • TV remote control

Frequency Bands

Wireless Propagation Ground Wave Ø ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth and can propagate distances well over the visible horizon Ø this effect is found in frequencies up to 2 MHz Ø the best known example of ground wave communication is AM radio

Wireless Propagation Sky Wave Ø sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio, CB radio, and international broadcasts such as BBC and Voice of America Ø a signal from an earth based antenna is reflected from the ionized layer of the upper atmosphere back down to earth Ø sky wave signals can travel through a number of hops, bouncing back and for the between the ionosphere and the earth’s surface

Wireless Propagation Line of Sight Ø ground and sky wave propagation modes do not operate above 30 MHz - - communication must be by line of sight

Refraction Ø velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium through which it travels • ~3 x 108 m/s in vacuum, less in anything else speed changes with movement between media Ø index of refraction (refractive index) is Ø Ø l sine(incidence)/sine(refraction) l varies with wavelength gradual bending l density of atmosphere decreases with height, resulting in bending of radio waves towards earth

Line of Sight Transmission Free space loss • loss of signal with distance Atmospheric Absorption • from water vapor and oxygen absorption Multipath • multiple interfering signals from reflections Refraction • bending signal away from receiver

Free Space Loss

Multipath Interference

Summary Ø transmission Media • physical path between transmitter and receiver • bandwidth, transmission impairments, interference, number of receivers Ø guided Media • twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber Ø wireless Transmission • microwave frequencies • antennas, terrestrial microwave, satellite microwave, broadcast radio Ø wireless Propagation • ground wave, sky wave, line of sight