The University of Utrecht April 2 nd 2007

The University of Utrecht April 2 nd, 2007 The Minority Concept in Ottoman Empire and Turkey Baskin Oran oran@politics. ankara. edu. tr Baskin Oran

Definitions of “Minority” Ø “A non-dominant group, different from the majority”. Ø Definition in the Ottoman Empire: None. Instead, the “Millet System” Ø Definition in Turkey: “Non-Muslim citizens of Turkey”. Ø Purpose of this presentation: To inquire into the roots of this definition and analyze Turkish society today. Baskin Oran 2

International Protection of Minorities and The Ottoman Empire Ø After solving the minority issue in W. Europe, European Powers finally turned to the non-Muslims of the Ottoman Empire. This also permitted them to squeeze to the corner, in the process of “solving” the Eastern Question, the (once) terrible enemy. Ø The minority regime in the Empire (The Millet System) facilitated this intervention. Baskin Oran 3

Minority Concept in the Ottoman Empire - The “Millet System” The Millet System (“Millet”= Religious Community) “Millet-i Hakime” “Millet-i Mahkume” (The Dominant Millet) (The Dominated Millet[s]) (All Muslims regardless of ethnic origin) (Non-Muslims organized into autonomous communities but as second-class subjects) Baskin Oran 4

The Millet System and Muslim Mentality Ø Rise of nationalist movements (1821 onwards) Millet System obsolete Officially abolished in 1839 by the Tanzimat reforms. Ø But stayed deep-rooted in Muslim mentality which strongly reacted to being equal with the “despised” non-Muslims. Ex. Kurds and Alevis today: “We are not minority. We are the constituent and essential elements of the State”. Baskin Oran 5

Minority Concept in Republican Turkey: Ø Western concept of equality adopted: Reception of the Swiss Civil Code in 1926: “All citizens are equal under law” Ø On the other hand, the Millet System codified: Lausanne Peace Treaty, Section Three, Protection of Minorities: “Positive minority rights under international protection” accorded to non-Muslims only. Baskin Oran 6

Application of Human and Minority Rights in Turkey Ø “The atmosphere” of the 1930 s: “Turkification” policies (and capital transfer from the non-Muslim to the Muslim bourgeoisie): 1923, 1927, 1932, 1934, 1941, 1942, 1955, 1964. l Until the end of 1940 s: “To be of real Turkish race” l 1988 -91: “Domestic Foreigners (Turkish citizens)” l Until February 2007: “Turkish citizen of Turkish origin”. l 2006: State Supervisory Council report: “Foreign foundations”. l 1971 -2003: The “ 1936 Declaration” l Refusal to apply: “All Turkish nationals have a right to use any language they wish in commerce, in public and private meetings and in all types of press and publication” (L. , 39/4). Baskin Oran 7

Description of the Present Situation Ø Dominant Nation (“Muslim”) “Muslim Turkish”. Ø But mentality remains unchanged: “Non-Muslims are second-class citizens”. Ø Additional negativity: “Non-Muslims are foreigners’ tools”. Ø Mentality aggravated by “Sèvres Paranoia” (= Islamophobia in Europe). Ø This paranoia nowadays results in: l Lynching and killing human rights activists, l Condemning them in tribunals, l Replacing freedom of speech with the “freedom to insult”. Baskin Oran 8

Analysis of the Present Situation -1 What is Happening? - Turkey is finally changing track, a second time in its history. It is burying the Millet System. Old and new versions, both. - The 1 st modernizing Revolution From Above: Kemalism (1920 s). The 2 nd: EU Reform Packages (2000 s). Ottoman Semi -Feudal Empire Umma Subject Baskin Oran 1 st Revolution 2 nd Revolution From Above (1920 s) (2000 s) Nation-state (monist) Democratic State Nation (“homogenous”) Nation (pluralist) Citizen (compulsory) Citizen (voluntary) 9

Analysis of the Present Situation-2 The “Minority Report” Ø October 2004: Prime Ministery`s Consultative Council on Human Rights Report - The “Supra Identity” issue: l Ottoman Turkiyeli • Turk = LAHASUMUT • Turkiyeli = The end of the Millet System. Baskin Oran 10

Analysis of the Present Situation -3 Why is it Happening This Way? Ø Turkey has accomplished in 80 years what Europe has done in centuries. l l Speed increases fuel consumption, involves more risk. Revolutions From Above/Outside have created their own reactions. Ø Globalization is scaring even European national identities. Ex. French and Dutch EU constitution referenda. Ø Issues swept under the carpet for decades now pop-up like zombies and contribute to the Sèvres Paranoia (Kurdish, Islamist, Cyprus, Armenian, etc. ). Baskin Oran 11

Analysis of the Present Situation -4 Despair and Hope Ø The parameters and actors have changed in an unbelievable way, only witnessing the rattling rate of the Turkish society: 1920 s 2000 s Kemalism EU Reform Packages Religious Reaction “Sèvres Paranoia” Baskin Oran 12