Instructor Morteza Maleki Ph D 2 3 An

Instructor Morteza Maleki Ph. D

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ü An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people (Kahn and Cannell. 1957). ü The use of interviews can help you to gather valid and reliable data that are relevant to your research question(s) and objectives. ü An interview or interviews may help formulate research question(s) and objectives. 4

Types of interview 1) 2) 3) Structured interviews; Semi-structured interviews; Unstructured or in-depth interviews. ü Another typology (Healey, 1991; Healey and Rawlinson, 1993, 1994) differentiates between: 1) Standardised interviews 2) Non-standardised interviews ü Robson (2002), based on the work of Powney and Watts (1987), refers to a different typology: 1) Respondent interviews 2) Informant interviews 5

ü Structured interviews use questionnaires based on a predetermined and standardised or identical set of questions and we refer to them as intervieweradministered questionnaires. ü As structured interviews are used to collect quantifiable data they are also referred to as quantitative research interviews. ü Semi-structured and in-depth (unstructured) interviews are non-standardised. ü These are often referred to as qualitative research interviews (King, 2004). 6

ü In semi-structured interviews the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview. ü You may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific organisational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. ü The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation. ü Additional questions may be required to explore your research question and objectives given the nature of events within particular organisations. 7

ü Unstructured interviews are informal. ü You would use these to explore in depth a general area in which you are interested. ü There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore. ü The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area, so that this type of interaction is sometimes called non-directive. 8

ü It has been labelled as an informant interview since it is the interviewee’s perceptions that guide the conduct of the interview. ü A respondent interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher (Easterby-Smith et al. , 2002; Ghauri and Grønhaug, 2005; Healey and Rawlinson, 1994; Robson, 2002). 9

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Links to the Purpose of Research and Research Strategy ü Standardised interviews are normally used to gather data, which will then be the subject of quantitative analysis, for example as part of a survey strategy. ü Non-standardised (semistructured and in-depth) interviews are used to gather data, which are normally analysed qualitatively , for example as part of a case study strategy. ü These data are likely to be used not only to reveal and understand the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ but also to place more emphasis on exploring the ‘why’. 11

ü In an exploratory study, in-depth interviews can be very helpful to ‘find out what is happening [and] to seek new insights’ (Robson, 2002). ü Semi-structured interviews may also be used in relation to an exploratory study. ü In descriptive studies, structured interviews can be used as a means to identify general patterns. ü In an explanatory study, semi-structured interviews may be used in order to understand the relationships between variables, such as those revealed from a descriptive study. ü Structured interviews may also be used in relation to an explanatory study, in a statistical sense. 12

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ü Your research may incorporate more than one type of interview. ü For example, As part of a survey strategy, you may decide to use in-depth or semi-structured interviews initially to help identify the questions that should be asked in your questionnaire. ü The data that you gather from such exploratory interviews will be used in the design of your questionnaire or structured interview. 14

ü There are four situations in which non-standardised (qualitative) research interviews can be used: 1) 2) 3) 4) The purpose of the research The significance of establishing personal contact The nature of the data collection questions Length of time required and completeness of the process 15

I. The purpose of the research ü Where undertaking an exploratory study, it is likely that you will include nonstandardized (qualitative) research interviews in your design (Blumberg et al. , 2005). ü An explanatory study is also likely to include interviews in order for the researcher to be able to infer causal relationships between variables. ü Essentially, where it is necessary to understand the reasons for the decisions that research participants have taken, or to understand the reasons for their attitudes and opinions, it will be necessary to conduct a qualitative interview. 16

ü Semi-structured and in-depth interviews provide the opportunity to ‘probe’ answers, where you want your interviewees to explain, or build on, their responses. ü In adopting an interpretivist epistemology, ü To understand the meanings that respondents ascribe to various phenomena. ü Interviewees may use words or ideas in a particular way, and the opportunity to probe these meanings. ü May lead the discussion into areas that you had not previously considered. ü Afford each interviewee an opportunity to hear herself or himself ‘thinking aloud’ about things. 17

II. The significance of establishing personal contact ü Researchers report that participants prefer to be interviewed rather than fill in a questionnaire (North et al. , 1983, cited in Healey, 1991). ü This situation provides the opportunity for interviewees to receive feedback and personal assurance about the way in which information will be used. ü Research participants are reluctant to complete questionnaire received by the post: 1) Feel that it is not appropriate to provide sensitive information to someone they have never met. 2) May not trust the way in which the information they provide is used 3) May be reluctant to spend time providing written explanatory answers. ü Hence, personal interviews achieve a higher response rate 18

III. The nature of the questions ü An interview will be the most advantageous approach in the following circumstances (Easterby-Smith et al. , 2002; Healey, 1991; Jankowicz, 2005): 1) 2) 3) Where there a large number of questions to be answered; Where the questions are either complex or open-ended; Where the order and logic of questioning may need to be varied 19

IV. Length of time required and completeness of the process Difficulty of trying to design a viable questionnaire The time needed for the respondent to complete the questionnaire 1) 2) ü Where expectations have been clearly established about the length of time required and participants understand agree with the objectives of the research interview ü They have generally been willing to agree to be interviewed 20

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Data Quality Issues 1) 2) 3) 4) Reliability; Forms of Bias; Validity Generalisability 22

1) Reliability; ü Reliability is concerned with whether alternative researchers would reveal similar information (Easterby-Smith et al. , 2002; Healey and Rawlinson, 1994). ü The lack of standardization in interviews may lead to concerns about reliability. 23

Forms of Bias; 2) ü There are various types of bias to consider Interviewer bias; the comments, tone or non-verbal behaviour of the interviewer creates bias in the way that interviewees respond to the questions being asked. ü ü This may be where you attempt to impose your own beliefs and frame of reference you will demonstrate bias in the way you interpret responses (Easterby-Smith et al. , 2002). Where you are unable to develop the trust of the interviewee, or perhaps where your credibility Interviewee or response bias; may be caused by perceptions about the interviewer or in relation to perceived interviewer bias. ü ü ü Interviews which lead to probing questions that would intrude on sensitive information that they do not wish, or are not empowered, to discuss with you. the interviewee provides a partial ‘picture’ of the situation 24

3) Validity; ü It refers to the extent to which the researcher gains access to their participants’ knowledge and experience, and is able to infer a meaning that the participant intended from the language that was used by this person. ü The main reason for the potential superiority of qualitative approaches for obtaining information is that the flexible and responsive interaction which is possible between interviewer and respondent(s) allows meanings to be probed, topics to be covered from a variety of angles and questions made clear to respondents. 25

ü Generalisability; ü Qualitative research using semi-structured or in-depth interviews will not be able to be used to make generalisations about the entire population ü ü This is based on a small and unrepresentative number of cases. This is often the situation when adopting a case study strategy (Yin, 2003). 26

Overcoming Data Quality Issues Reliability ü The findings derived from using non-standardized research methods are not necessarily intended to be repeatable since they reflect reality at the time they were collected, in a situation which may be subject to change (Marshall and Rossman, 1999). ü The circumstances to be explored are complex and dynamic. ü The value of using non-standardized interviews is derived from the flexibility that you may use to explore the complexity of the topic. 27

Preparation ü The key to a successful interview is careful preparation ü The five Ps are a useful mantra: ü Prior Planning Prevents Poor Performance ü It is critical that you plan precisely how you are going to demonstrate your credibility and obtain the confidence of the interviewees. 28

ü Issues associated with interview preparation include; Level of knowledge 2. Level of information supplied to the interviewee 3. Appropriateness of location 4. Appropriateness of the researcher’s appearance at the interview 5. Nature of the opening comments to be made when the interview commences 6. Approach to questioning 7. Nature and impact of the interviewer’s behaviour during the course of the interview 8. Demonstration of attentive listening skills 9. Scope to test understanding 10. Approach to recording data 11. Cultural differences and bias 1. 29

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Generalisability ü Two arguments have been advanced that seek to clarify the approach adopted to the generalisability or transferability of qualitative research: ü The first of these relates to the situation where a single case study is used because of the unstructured nature of the research. ü ü Bryman (1988) states that ‘within a case study a wide range of different people and activities are invariably examined so that the contrast with survey samples is not as acute as it appears at first glance’. The single case may in fact encompass a number of settings, where it involves a study in a large organisation with sites across the country, or around the world. 32

ü The second argument is related to the significance of this type of research to theoretical propositions (Bryman, 1988; Yin, 2003). ü Where you are able to relate your research project to existing theory, you will be in a position to demonstrate that your findings will have a broader theoretical significance than the case or cases that form the basis of your work (Marshall and Rossman, 1999). 33

ü Areas to develop competence in the conduct of semi-structured interviews include: 1. Opening the interview; 2. Using appropriate language; 3. Questioning; 4. Listening; 5. Testing and summarising understanding; 6. Recognising and dealing with difficult participants; 7. Recording data 34

Questioning ü Allowing the interviewee to talk freely throughout an in-depth interview is unlikely to lead to a clearly focused discussion (Easterby-Smith et al. , 2002; Robson, 2002). ü It is necessary to devise relevant interview themes ü ü Though you can adopt a flexible approach about the way these are dealt with Formulating appropriate questions to explore areas in which you are interested will be critical to achieving success in this type of interviewing. 35

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1) Open questions ü Allow participants to define and describe a situation or event. ü Is designed to encourage the interviewee to provide an extensive and developmental answer, and may be used to reveal attitudes or obtain facts (Grummitt, 1980). ü Encourages the interviewee to reply as they wish. ü Is likely to start with, or include, one of the following words: ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’. 38

2) Probing questions ü Probing questions can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic. ü They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction. 39

ü May also be used to seek an explanation where you do not understand the interviewee’s meaning or where the response does not reveal the reasoning involved. 40

ü The use of reflection may also help you to probe a theme. This is where you will ‘reflect’ a statement made by the interviewee by paraphrasing their words. ü Where an open question does not reveal a relevant response, you may also probe the area of interest by using a supplementary question that finds a way of rephrasing the original question (Torrington, 1991). 41

3) Specific and closed questions ü Similar to those used in structured interviews. ü Can be used to obtain specific information or to confirm a fact or opinion. 42

Recognising and Dealing with Difficult Participants ü You might meet some participants who are more difficult to interview. 43

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Recording information ü The need to create a full record of the interview soon after its occurrence. ü As one of the means to control bias and to produce reliable data for analysis. 45

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ü Group interview as a general term to describe all non-standardized interviews conducted with two or more people. ü The term focus group is used to refer to those group interviews where the topic is defined clearly and precisely and there is a focus on enabling and recording interactive discussion between participants (Carson et al. , 2001). 47

ü The precise number of people in group interview depends upon 1) The nature of the participants 2) The topic matter 3) The skill of the interviewer ü Note; The more complex the subject matter the smaller the number of interviewees. ü Participants are normally chosen using nonprobability sampling, often with a specific purpose in mind. 48

Considerations when thinking of conducting group interview; When it occurs in organization, participants are ordered to take par; 1) ü ü ü It is likely to lead to some level of non-attendance, or to unreliable data. Exercise care over the wording to be used in the request that is sent to them to take part. Exercise care in your introduction to the group when the interview occurs in order to provide a clear assurance about confidentiality. 49

Once your sample have been selected, respondents should be grouped so as not to inhibit individuals’ possible contributions. 2) ü ü ü Inhibitions may be related to lack of trust, to perceptions about status differences, or because of the dominance of certain individuals. horizontal slices – within each group, participants have a similar status and similar work experiences. vertical slice - introduce perceptions about status differences and variations in work experience. 50

3) Where one or two people dominate the discussion, you should seek to reduce their contributions carefully and to bring others in. 51

4) Participants should understand each other’s contributions and that you develop an accurate understanding of the points being made. 5) You will need to consider the location and setting for a group interview. 6) you should plan to undertake three or four group interviews with any one type of participant (Krueger and Casey, 2000). ü If after the third or fourth group interview you are no longer receiving new information, this means that you have heard the full range of ideas and reached saturation. 52

ü Moderator or Facilitator is responsible for running a focus group, bearing following roles; 1) Keep discussions flowing and on track, 2) Guide discussions back from irrelevant topics, 3) Make transitions into another question, and 4) Be sensitive to mood of the group. 5) Know when to move onto another question. 6) Have some background knowledge about the topic being discussed. 53

1) Use of a moderator team. One should consider using a moderator team with divided tasks. ü ü 2) The main moderator should direct the discussion and take minimal notes. The assistant can take comprehensive notes, operate tape the recorder, handle environmental conditions, and respond to unexpected interruptions (e. g. , late comers, children someone brought, etc. ). Be mentally prepared. ü ü Moderators should be mentally alert, listen well, and think quickly on their feet. Questions should be memorized. 54

3) Have a Presession strategy. ü ü ü Small talk is essential just prior to group discussion. The moderator should greet the participants and begin small talk while avoiding issues to be discussed during the focus group session. This time will allow a moderator to observe the interaction. Name tents can be strategically placed around the table after observing participants. For example, you may want to strategically place those who are extremely shy or those who may dominate the discussion. 4) Record the discussion. ü ü Discussions should be recorded via tape recording and note taking. Notes are essential. Notes should be so complete that it can be used even if the tape recorder did not work. One should never rely completely on a tape recorder. Someone, other than the moderator should take detailed notes. 55

5) Begin the discussion. ü ü 6) The recommended pattern of discussion is welcome, overview and topic, ground rules, first question. The overview should provide an honest discussion of the about the purpose of the study and the importance of the topic of group discussion. Ground rules are suggestions that will help guide the discussion and include rules such as: minimize or eliminate side conversations, one person will speak at a time, don't criticize what others have to say, and treat everyone's ideas with respect. The first question should be one that "breaks the ice" and encourages everyone to talk. Pause and Probe. ü ü ü As a general rule, a moderator should pause for five seconds after a participant talks before beginning to talk. This five second pause gives other participants a chance to jump in. Probes, such as "would you explain that further? " or "Would you give me an example? " should be used to request additional information. 56

7) Responding to participant comments. ü 8) Be aware of group dynamics. ü 9) Moderators should avoid head nodding, and short verbal responses such as "ok", "yes", "uh huh", "correct", "that's good" etc. Moderators should watch for the expert, the dominant talker, the shy participant, the rambler, etc. Selecting the focus group location. ü ü Locations should be easy to get to. Participants should sit facing each other. A table should be available for participants to sit around. The room should also be accessible for setting up tape recorders. 57

10) Being prepared for the unexpected. ü Moderators should be prepared for unexpected evens such as no one showing up (make sure you bring list and phone numbers), only a few showing up (hold group anyway), meeting place inadequate, group does not want to talk (ask individuals questions, go around the room and everyone answers specific question, the group gets involved and don't want to leave (have formal ending)), hazardous weather (call everyone and cancel), early questions take up too much time (make sure important questions at the end of question rout get answered). 11) Concluding the focus group. ü Thank the group for participating. ü The moderator may choose to summarize what was said and ask if anything was missed. 58

Telephone interviews ü Non-standardized interviews have the advantages of access, speed and lower cost. ü In other words, this approach may be seen as more convenient. ü The intention of non-standardised interviewing is to be able to explore the participant’s responses. ü This is likely to become more feasible once a position of trust has been established. ü Seeking to conduct qualitative interviews by telephone may lead to issues of (reduced) reliability. 59

1) The ability to control the pace of a telephone interview and to record any data that were forthcoming is another issue. ü Using audio-recording 2) The normal visual cues that allow your participant to control the flow of the data that they share with you would be absent 3) You lose the opportunity to witness the non-verbal behaviour of your participant ü Affect your interpretation of how far to pursue a particular line of questioning 4) Your participant may be less willing to provide you with as much time to talk to them in comparison with a face-to-face interview. 5) Difficulties in developing more complex questions in comparison with a faceto-face interview 60

Internet- and intranet-mediated interviewing ü Electronic interviews to refer to interviews held both in real time (synchronous) using the Internet and organisations’ intranets as well as those that are undertaken off-line (asynchronous). ü Using the Internet or an organisation’s intranet has significant advantages where the population you wish to interview are geographically dispersed. ü The software automatically records as they are typed in, removing problems cost, accuracy and participants’ apprehension. 61

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ü For asynchronous interviewing, email and Internet forums or discussion groups mean that interviews are normally conducted over an extended time period of weeks. ü A forum usually deals only with one topic and personal exchanges are discouraged. ü Forums are commonly referred to as web forums, message boards, discussion boards, discussion forums, discussion groups and bulletin boards. 63

ü An email interview consist of a series of emails each containing a small number of questions rather than one email containing a series of questions (Morgan and Symon, 2004). 64

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