Four separate civilizations Mesopotamia Egypt Harappa Indus Valley

Ø Four separate civilizations • • Mesopotamia Egypt Harappa (Indus Valley) Shang China (Huang He)

Ø Mesopotamia was a succession of societies • • • Sumeria (Sumer) Akkad First Babylon Assyria Second Babylon

Ø Geography • Unpredictable rivers (Tigris and Euphrates) • Delta region extremely fertile • Flat land open to invasion – no natural barriers • By 4, 000 BCE at least four major groups had migrated into Sumeria: Hamites from North Africa, Semites from Arabia, Indo-Europeans from Russia, and Caucasians from Georgia • Semi-arid climate required extensive irrigation projects

Ø Growth of the state • Irrigation projects required cooperation on a grand scale and leadership • Farmers banded together in settlements to manage the environment and for protection • These settlements became compact cities surrounded by high mud-brick walls • These cities were independent from one another hence they were city-states

Ø The city-states were often built around existing religious structures – enhancing the close relationship between government and religion Ø The ziggurat became the focal point of these city-states

Ziggurats - stepped towers topped by temples

Ziggurats were the focal point of the city-state The Tower of Babel is believed to have been a ziggurat

Ø Sumeria lasted about 1, 300 years (3360 – 2400 BCE) Ø There was constant warfare between city-states and invaders and between city-states themselves Ø Each city-state controlled an area about 100 square miles Ø There were about 12 major city-states including Ur, Eridu, Lagash, and Uruk Ø Each city-state was ruled by a priest/leader called a Patesi who was the highest political, religious, and military authority

Ø Religion • People felt utterly dependent on will of gods due to harsh life • Originally, each city-state had its own patron god but later all gods were collected into a hierarchy reflecting Sumerian values • As male gods became dominant = strengthening of patriarchy • Afterlife – sad and gloomy place (later used as model for Hell)

Ø Religion and Politics • All land belonged to the gods and kings were their representatives • Kings and priests afforded special place in society • Theocracy – rule by gods or priests • By the end of Sumeria’s influence, kings were becoming separate from the priest class

Ø Class System • Kings / priests • Commoners: farmers, artisans, merchants • Slaves Ø Sumerian Life • Marriage was based on a contract • Males were dominant but females had more freedom than they do today • Females exerted influence through sexuality • Due to property inheritances, women would be put to death for adultery

Ø Cuneiform • Oldest writing system • Original purpose was economic • Used to record memoranda, lists of goods, receipts, contracts, etc • One of first uses was to record beer recipe

Cuneiform- first system of writing

Cuneiform tablet with envelope

Writing was reserved for the wealthy classes

Ø Writing systems beget literature Ø Oldest literature was epic poem The Epic of Gilgamesh Ø Poem relates story of Gilgamesh, ruler of Uruk, who seeks out survivor of great flood in quest of eternal youth

Ø Trade links with Egypt and Harappa Ø Adopted use of silver as means of exchange Ø “Invented” the wheel and pioneered use of carts and chariots Ø Sumerian mathematics based on 12, 60, and 360 (clock and circle) Ø Sumerian astronomical charts basis for modern astronomy Ø Invented quadratic expressions

Ø Conquered Sumeria = Akkad first empire Ø Some centralization of power Ø Sargon I = first emperor Ø Absorbed / took on Sumerian culture

Ø Political • Akkad was overthrown by Amorites • Sumerian language disappeared – replaced by Amorite Semitic language • Made capital at Babylon • Old Babylon overthrown by invading Kassites and Hittites • Period of chaos followed for about three centuries

Ø Hammurabi • Founder of the Old Babylonian Empire • Most known for his code of laws o based on two 282 laws o principles: lex talonis and class

Ø Political • Conquered Kassites and brought all of Mesopotamia under their control • Noted for brutality and ruthlessness • Largest Mesopotamian empire in landmass • Conquered Egypt for short period • Assyria brought down by invading Medes and Chaldeans

Ø Political • Established by Chaldeans who made capital at Babylon • King Nebuchadnezzar • Hanging gardens • Continued Sumerian culture • Conquered by the Persians

Other Middle Eastern Societies Ø Hittites • Iron Ø Israelites • Two kingdoms • Judaism Ø Phoenicians • Alphabet • Trade colonies (Carthage)

1. What was the world’s first writing system? 2. What was it developed for? 3. Who were literate in Mesopotamia? Why? 4. What was the first piece of literature? What was it about? 5. What was the basic political unit of Mesopotamia? 6. What was the focal point of the Mesopotamian city-state?

7. How did geography affect the development of Mesopotamian religion? 8. How did geography affect the development of Mesopotamian civilization? 9. What was the first empire? Who created it? 10. What was the Code of Hammurabi? What was it based on? 11. Who laid the foundations for our modern alphabet?

The characteristic political organization of the Tigris – Euphrates civilization was a. Democracy b. Large, durable empires c. Village-level government d. Regional city-states e. Hunting bands

Ø Geography • Desert o “Redlands” o Natural barriers to invasion • Nile River o “Blacklands” o Unlike Mesopotamia, river serene and predictable o River was everything to Egyptians: life and communication • Mediterranean and Red seas • How did geography influence Egypt’s religion?

Ø Political • Egypt separated into two distinct regions: Upper and Lower Egypt • These regions unified by King Menes during the Archaic Period • Pharaoh – “great house” or “palace”

Ø Founded by King Zoser Ø Power virtually unlimited Ø Pharaoh was considered child of the sun god Ø Married sister to keep blood lines pure Ø Pharaoh’s chief subordinates were the priests – pharaoh was the chief priest

Ø Egypt eventually divided into 42 provinces administered by a governor Ø Governors reported to the Pharaoh or his chief bureaucratic official, the Vizier Ø The Old Kingdom was a period of great peace Ø Pharaoh had no standing army – each local area had its own militia Ø There was little to no slavery Ø Most of the large pyramids were constructed during the Old Kingdom

The pyramids at Giza

Contrary to popular belief, the pyramids were not built with slave labor but by the Egyptian people. How was it done?

Ø The Old Kingdom fell about 2200 BCE • • • Financial problems due to construction of the pyramids Crop failures Provincial nobles usurped power from central government – warred against each other Civil war allowed development of brigands and invasion by desert nomads Period of chaos called the First Intermediate Period – ended with rise of Middle Kingdom around 2050 BCE

Ø Ruled through an alliance composed of middle class – nobility kept in check Ø Period of expansion – Nubia conquered Ø Construction of public works versus pyramids Ø Religion democratized – hope of salvation of common people

Ø Middle Kingdom considered golden age of Egypt Ø Middle Kingdom possibly fell to revolt by nobles Ø Period of chaos followed Ø Weakened Egypt conquered by Hyksos

Ø Hyksos gained power through superior weapons: chariots and bronze weapons Ø Egyptians learned from Hyksos – united as one people to oust them Ø Ahmose became powerful as power of nobility severely curtailed

Ø Egypt became imperialistic – appetite whetted for war and conquest Ø The large army gathered to destroy the Hyksos used by pharaoh to expand territory Ø Egypt conquered into Libya and Syria Ø Prisoners of war = large slave population

Ø Hatshepsut • First of four female rulers of Egypt • Became pharaoh as regent for son • Succeeded by son Thutmose III • Son destroyed most records of Hatshepsut

Ø Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) • • Established monotheism Aton- the sun god Queen Nefertiti Short reign (~15 years)

Ø Polytheism restored by boypharaoh Tutankhamen Ø Ramses II (The Great) Ø The Treaty of Kadesh Egypt & Hittites Ø Conquered by nomadic Sea People Ø Last real independent kingdom • Libyans, Nubians (Kush), Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Muslims, Europeans Forensic experts have re-created the real Tutankhamen

The Treaty of Kadesh

Ramses the Great today

Ø Egyptian Religion • Polytheistic • Two major gods: Amon-re (sun) and Osiris (Nile) • During Old Kingdom religion was for the state not the masses • Story of Osiris symbolized death and resurrection = immortality (Osiris, Isis, Seth, Horus) • The concept of the afterlife became fully developed during the Middle Kingdom • Amon became god of the living and Osiris god of the dead

• Elaborate preparations were made to preserve remains for the afterlife • The dead appeared before Osiris for judgment based on deeds done on earth – the good had eternal pleasure the bad were destroyed • Religion was now ethical • Religion changed during the New Kingdom –people relied on magic charms/potions for salvation instead of ethical behavior • This was in part responsible for the monotheism that sprung up under Akhenaton

1. How did geography affect the Egyptian civilization? 2. Who united Upper and lower Egypt? 3. What are three major phases of ancient Egyptian political history? 4. In what period were the great pyramids constructed? 5. What ended the Middle Kingdom?

6. Who was Egypt’s first female ruler? 7. In what period were the Egyptians most warlike? 8. In what period were the pharaohs most politically aligned with the middle class? 9. What did Akhenaton introduce to Egypt? 10. What ended the New Kingdom? 11. During what period do you think Moses and the Jews were in Egypt?

Egypt differed from Mesopotamian civilization by stressing a. Well-organized, durable empires b. Extensive trade c. Firm religious beliefs d. Greater social equality e. More modest building projects

Ø Sophisticated urban centers Ø Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro Ø Dynamic trade state - trade with Mesopotamia and China Ø Monsoons

Cities very sophisticated with advanced sewage systems

Harappan writing has not yet been deciphered

Harappans worshipped cattle and Shiva

Ø Decline due to • Degradation of the ecosystem • Migration of nomadic Aryans • Political collapse

• Aryans: Ø“Noble People” ØIndo-Europeans • The Vedas • Hinduism

• Level 1: The Brahmins (priests) • Level 2: The Kshatriyas (warriors/nobles) • Level 3: The Vaisyas (traders and farmers) • Level 4: The Sudras (common laborers) Mostly Dravidians • Outcastes: The Untouchables

Ø Geography • • Isolated Huang He (“China’s Sorrow”) Vulnerable northern borders Western desert Himalayas Vietnam Pacific Ocean Arable land – culture of conservation

Ø Yangshao • Slash-and-burn agriculture • Domestication of animals • Silk production Ø Longshan People • Permanent settlements with walls • Occupational specialization Ø Xia Dynasty – mythical?

Ø Shang Dynasty • • • 3, 000 states - Fragmented King - head shaman Dynasty based on divine rule Bureaucracy increasingly sophisticated Technologically advanced o Use of bronze o Chariot warfare (imported from West? ) o Lacquer

Ø Writing • Oracle Bones • Ideographic symbols • Primary purpose was religious

Ø Bronze • Sophisticated metallurgy skills • Controlled by elites • Used for religious rituals and weapons

1. What river gave life to Harappan civilization? 2. How would you characterize Harappan civilization? 3. How is the Harappan written language unlike that of the rest of the floodplain civilizations? 4. What happened to the Indus Valley civilization? 5. What was an early form of Chinese writing? 6. What geographic factor most influenced life in Harappa?

7. What area of China was most conflicted? 8. What form of art was used in Chinese religious rituals? 9. What is considered the first major Chinese civilization? 10. On what major river was Chinese civilization first established? 11. What did the Aryans base the caste system on?

12. What does the word “Aryan” mean? 13. What ancient texts give scholars information about the Aryans? 14. What is the goal of Hinduism? 15. Most of the Sudra caste is composed of what people?

Which river valley civilization was most completely destroyed by invasion? a. Huang He b. Indus c. Nile d. Tigris-Euphrates e. Mekong