The Anthropology of Magic Witchcraft and Religion On

The Anthropology of Magic, Witchcraft, and Religion On Consciousness (“Normal” and “Altered”)

Conscious First use in the early 1600 s; derived from Latin conscius com- “with” + scire “to know” Thus: “knowing with others, participating in knowledge, aware of” Consciousness: the ability to know about – and consequently to act within – the world.

“knowing with others, participating in knowledge, aware of” • This is not as straightforward as it might seem… • How can I be certain that what I know is what you know? • Can I really “participate” in your knowledge? • What does it mean to be “aware”?

One Answer Ban Consciousness as a Topic of Study John B. Watson 1878 -1958 Burrhus Fredric Skinner 1904 -1990 The “fathers” of behaviorism

The Behaviorist Answer black box Stimulus Response But what is going on inside the cat’s head? that is… Why does it respond the way it does?

A range of answers… Panpsychism Solipsism all matter has some form of consciousness one’s own mind is all that exists

But things change (as they always do…) Albert Hofmann 1906 -2008 Holding a model of the LSD molecule Allen Ginsburg 1926 -1997 dancing at the Human Be-In, 1967 and “consciousness” has made a come-back

Waking States of Consciousness • Enable an organism to function within the world • Primarily outward directed • Survival-oriented (identifying food, enemies, mates, etc. )

For us… • Consciousness involves the ability to know about – and consequently to act within – the world. • Involves “self-awareness” –found in • humans • chimps • gorillas • i. e. , of the self as being distinct from the rest of the universe

A Measure of Self-Awareness “passed” by: • great apes – Bonobos – Chimpanzees – Orangutans – Gorillas • Bottlenose Dolphins • Orcas • Elephants • European Magpies • Pigs • Humans (after app. 18 months) Don’t worry, they’re just friends…

Consciousness Is made possible by biological processes that are • rooted in our individual biology • open to manipulation • culturally expressed As a result, “normal consciousness” differs from • society to society • person to person

Mind is a “high level” function of the brain that • Enables self-awareness • Allows the individual to conceptualize her or his place in the world • Makes it possible to learn, generate, and apply “high level” models (interpretations) of the world

Learned Models • Hypotheses about the world • verified or falsified via sensory and motor activity • Unique to the individual (non-isomorphic) • Limited in scope and applicability (tenuous)

Via Sensory Input • We experience “what is going on” • We learn how to refer to things (language) • We learn what things are (culturally) significant • We learn how to act upon the world

Via Motor Output • We verify “what is going on” • We validate our linguistic categories • We communicate what we find significant • We verify the “correctness” of our models of the world

Normal “States” of Consciousness • Waking Mode (the “baseline”) • Deep Sleep • REM (Dream) Sleep

Altered States of Consciousness

Altered “States” of Consciousness aka Mystical Transcendental Transpersonal Integrative

ASCs Can be induced at several “levels” • Body/Brain functioning • Mental Activity • External agents

How to Induce ASCs Sensory Activity deprivation overload Mental Activity focused relaxed

The Continuum of Consciousness States (Roland Fischer)

physiological exercises (manipulation of the psychological state) four major methods 1. drugs 2. sensory deprivation 3. mortification of the flesh – pain – sleeplessness – fatigue 4. deprivation – food – water – air

13 categories of religious behavior 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. prayer music physiological exercises exhortation reciting the code simulation 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. mana taboo feasts sacrifice congregation inspiration symbolism … the “smallest religious things” of a society

Cultures and “Drugs” • Prescribed drug use – culturally explained (often ritualized), tend to be integrative • Proscribed drug use – individually shaped, may be dis/integrative (both to the individual and the culture)

The Basic Structure of Sacred Space “sacred” “profane”

Balche’ Ritual of the Lacandon Maya • Made from a tree (Lonchocarpus violaceus) that is allow to ferment • Active components: alcohol, longistylines • Rite of Intensification (collective use)

“rite of passage” sacred world separation liminality (the threshold) initial social status reintegration subsequent social status profane world

Peyote Use among the Huichol • Peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii) contains mescaline and numerous other alkaloids • Used as an all purpose medicine and for ritual purposes

Datura Use among the Chumash • Datura wrightii contains numerous tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine) • Used in initiations, to acquire spirit helpers

Hoasca/Ayahuasca Banisteriopsis caapi Psychotria viridis

Caapi contains β-carbolines Sedative Hypnotic MAO-inhibiting Chacruna contains Dimethyltryptamines Visionary

Ayahuasca • Use for millennia in Amazon Basin and neighboring regions • May be the most commonly used hallucinogenic preparation in the world

Ayahuasca Churches Santo Daime • Founded in 1920 s by Raimundo Irineu Serra • Combines Christian with indigenous & Mestizo religious elements

Ayahuasca Churches União de Vegetal • Founded in 1961 by Jose Gabriel da Costa (Mestre Gabriel) • UDV Church has U. S. presence

What can we say about Consciousness? • It is dynamic • It is different for each of us • All cultures control the consciousness of their members • Your consciousness is your most personal attribute