Introduction to Environmental Ethics and Policy Cleaner Production

Introduction to Environmental Ethics and Policy Cleaner Production 30. 11. 2006 Simo Kyllönen Faculty of Social Sciences

Content n Introduction to theories of environmental ethics n The ethical foundations of environmental policy and law n Sustainable development as an environmental policy principle

Ethical questions concerning e. g. the use of natural resources 1. Why natural resources should or shouldn’t be used? ➡Yes, because they fulfill the vital needs of the people. ➡No, because the use compromise the vital needs of future generation; because it is polluting. . . 2. How they should or should not be used ➡Using only the best available technology, recognising the rights of local people. . . 1. How the benefits and costs of the use should be distributed? ➡ In proportion to ownership, to financing, to merits, to vulnerability. . . 3

Ethical reseach Descriptive ethics Philosophical ethics - sociological surveys on people‘s the ethical values and opinions. - what people think to be ethical? - ethical theories - what are justified ethical principles? Normative ethics Meta-ethics What is ethical according to these principles? What is ‚ethical‘? What do we mean by ethical concepts? Applied ethics - applying ethical principles in every day questions: e. g. professional ethics, business ethics, bioethics, environmental ethics Social conventions, habits Religions Scientific research 4

Environmental ethics n The moral objects: Who and which things are to be taken into account in ethical consideration? n closest fellow-citizens n all humans, including future generations n all things that are valuable for human well-being n all beings that can suffer pain n all self-consciousness beings n n The moral agents: Who can be taken as ethically responsible? 5

Traditional antropocentric environmentalism n Morally relevant objects include humans and things that are valuable for human well-being -> nature only instrumentally valuable n Conservationism: the sustainable and wise use of natural resources. Gifford Pinchot (1865– 1946) n Preservationism: the preservation of “wild” and pristine nature. John Muir (1838– 1914) 6

“First environmental crisis” 1960 -70 n Accidental local and regional problems (DDT) n Limits of natural resources (oil crisis) n Animal suffering 1962 1975 7

1. Respond: Biocentric environmentalism Biocentric view questions: - why only humans are morally relevant? Nature Ethics and moral 8

Biocentric theories: n Morally relevant are also: n animal n the suffering -> animal rights theories, Peter Singer ”natural good” of all natural organisms, species populations and life communities n ecological holistic entities including inanimate nature -> Deep Ecology (Arne Naess) and Land Ethics (Aldo Leopold) 9

2. Respond: Social ecoloy and ecofeminism Nature Ethics, rights, justice Social ecology questions: -environmental problems are social problems -caused by the same hiearchical and unjust mechanisms that cause rasims, sexism and third world exploitation. 10

Discussion questions ➡What ethical question have you faced in relation to environment or nature? ➡Do you recognise following some ethical principle in these situations? 11

The ethical foundations of environmental policy and law n Our ethical standpoint reflects to the environmental law and policy: n what kind rights and duties we have in relation to nature? - substantive rights to healthy environment - participatory rights to the access to information, public participation, in decision-making and access to justice in environmetal matters n what kind of policy principles we use? - cost/benefit analysis - avoiding environmental harm - protecting the vulnerable - precautionary principle - sustainability 12

Rights and duties Rights -moral rights -legal rights Duties -moral obligation -legal duty n moral and legal claim-rights imply that somebody has a corresponding duty to recognise that right n If I have (legal) right to the healthy environment then society has to duty to guarantee that this right is not violated due pollution etc. n If morally relevant objects could have a status of legal right-holder, somebody has a legal duty to recognise this right. -> animal rights 13

Substantive and participatory environmental rights n The Aarhus Convention on environmental rights n Included also in Finnish Constitution and environmental legislation n Substantive rights to healthy environment, problems: n What determines the “healthy environment” in each occasion? n Environmental problems considered only by the affects to human health? What about other environmental qualities, e. g. biodiversity? n Participatory rights: people can participate to decision making concerning their environment: e. g. what is healthy? 14

Participatory rights n Guarantee that the environmental decisions are made democratically: fair participation of all stake-holders and local people n Inform the people about the environmental matters n Inform the authorities and decision makers about the local environmental problems n Help the people to protect and improve their environment n Strengthen the public support for decision on the environment n More transparent and legitimate governance: n provides citizens the juridical means to control the authorities n provides citizens means to compare the alternatives and to demand justifications for decisions 15

Rights of the nature? n Nature as a right-holder, problems: n lack of correspondence and reciprocity n problems to determine “natural good” of the animals, plants, ecosystems n problem of representation: who is justified to represent nature? n This does not mean that n natural entities could not have some legal rights (they do have) n they wouldn’t have moral worth that would imply moral duties to us n Simply: rights are not always appropriate way to address ethical questions in environmental matters 16

Discussion questions n What kind of environmental rights and duties can you recognise to have? n Are there any legal ones? 17

“Second environmental crisis” 1980 -2000 n Problems are global and intergenerational n Addressing them requires scientific research n They can lead to catastrophic and irreversible effects 1984 1987 2001 18

Respond 1: Ethical principles for environmental decision making 1. Avoiding harm ➡ Polluter pays principle 2. Keeping options open (reversibility) ➡ Precautionary principle 3. Comparing the alternatives ➡ Environmental Impact Assessment 3. Protecting the Vulnerable 1. Maximising sustainable benefits 6 19

Precautionary principle n ”Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. ” n Preventive anticipation n Safeguarding of ecological buffer-zones or safety margins n Weighting the future cost of inaction to current benefits more fairly n Onus of proof to those who propose change from those who oppose it. 20

Respond 2: Sustainable development n Brundtland Commission 1987: n ”Sustainable development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within two key concepts: • the concept of ’needs’, in particular the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which oveeriding priority is given • the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. ” 21

What to sustain and how much? n Depends on three issues: n the extent of substitutability we believe to exist for natural resources used in need satisfaction n the extent we believe natural prosesses and systems to be critical or valuable n the degree of risk-aversion we feel. n This leads to: n most weak: neo-classical economist’s sustainability n critical natural capital n protecting n most the irreversible nature strong: protecting the intrinsic value of nature (cf. deep ecology) 22

Sustainable development as a policy principle n Ecological constraints and margins (ecological sustainability) n The human essential needs and well being not only material but comprise also they basic human and democratic rights (social sustainability) n It emphasise thus mechanisms of decision-making: n they informational quality and competence n democratic n legitimacy fairness and public agreement n Economical means that can recognise these two. 23

Discussion questions: n What do you think to be most important in sustainable development? n How your field of action could be made more sustainable? what would be the first steps? 24